1.Major sense relations
(1)Synonymy:同义关系 refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. ①Dialectal synonyms—synonyms used in different regional dialects. Eg. British English: autumn. American English: fall. ②Stylistic synonyms---Synonyms differing in style. Eg. Start, begin, commence ③Synonyms that different in their emotive or evaluative meaning. Eg. The two words collaborator and accomplice are synonymous inthat they share the meaning of “a person who helps another”, but they differ in that a collaborator helps another in doing something good, while an accomplice helps another ina criminal act. ④Semantically different synonyms. Eg. The two words amaze and astound are very close in meaning to the word surprise, but have very subtle differences. While amaze suggests confusion and bewilderment, astound suggests difficulty in believing. ⑤Collocational synonyms. Eg. charge…. With, rebuke….for, sour milk
(2).Polysemy:多义现象It refers to different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. Eg. If we look up he word “table” in any dictionary, we will find the following meanings: 1)a piece of furniture, 2)all the people seated at table, 3)the food that is put on the table, 4)a thin flat piece of stone, metal, wood, etc, and so on
(3).Homonymy同音异义refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form. 1)Homophones同音异义—when two words are identical in sound. Eg. Meet/meat; son/sun; night/knight; Homonymy Homographs同形异义—when two words are identical in spelling. Eg. minute n/minute adj; tear v./ tear n ; lead v./lead n. Complete homonyms—when two words are identical in both spelling and sound. Eg. Fast adj./ fast v. scale n./scale v.
(4).Hyponymy下义关系It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. the word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate上义词, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms下义词. Eg. Superordinate: animal, hyponyms: dog, cat, tiger, lion, fox, bear.
(5)Antonymy 反义关系It’s the term used for oppositeness of meaning. ①Gradable antonyms分级反义词(a matter of degree). Eg.Old—middle-aged—young; hot-warm-cold . ② Complementary antonyms互补反义词(the denial of one member of pair implies the
assertion of the other) . Eg. Alive—dead; male—female; ③Relational opposites关系反义词(Pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items are called relational opposites)Eg. father-son; teacher-pupil; doctor-patient; buy-sell; above-below; north-south
2.Semantics：can be defined as the study of meaning.
3.The naming theory--Plato. words are just names or labels for things. Limitation: 1.this theory seems applicable to nouns only. 2.within the category of nouns, there are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world at all.
4.The conceptualist view: there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind../ semantic triangle语义三角, triangle of significance意义三角
5.Contextualism：J.R.Firth. It’s based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts./ the situational and the linguistic context.
6.Behaviorism: Bloomfield. It refers to the attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the” situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.
7.Sense: It’s concerned with the of the linguistic form. It’s of the linguistic form, it’s meaning dictionary compiliers are interested)
8.Reference: It means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world, it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.
A certain sense can be realized by more than one references, a certain reference can be expressed by more than one sense. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.
9.sense relation between sentences句子间的意义关系X is synonymous with Y. (同义), X is inconsistent with Y.(不一致)， X entails Y.(X包含于Y中), X presupposes Y. (Y是X的先决条件)，X is a contradiction.(自我矛盾) , X is semantically anomalous. (语义反常)
10.Componential analysis(CA) 成分分析—a way to analyze lexical meaning. It is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. The approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components,
called Semantic features.
Plus and minimums signs are used to indicate whether a certain semantic feature is present or absent, these feature symbols are usually written in capitalized letters. Eg. Boy=[+HUMAN] [-ADULT] [+MALE] man=[+HUMAN] [+ADULT] [+MALE]
11.Predication Analysis 述谓结构分析—a way to analyze sentence meaning, 由British Linguist G.Leech提出Predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence, it applies to all forms of a sentence, including statements, imperative and interrogative. (the meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components.)1)grammatical
2)semantic meaning.
Predication consists of Arguments变元and Predicates谓词. An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal elements in a sentence, a predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence. one-place predication eg, “Tom smokes” argument:”TOM” predicate: “SMOKE”, the predition: TOM(SMOKE), two-place predication) eg, “Kids like apples” KID,APPLE(LIKE), no-place predication eg, “It is hot”(BET HOT).
12.Pragmatics: 语用学Pragmatics is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.
13.Pragmatics VS Semantics: distinguish→context, The publication of Saussure’s work Course of General Linguistics in the early 20th century marked the beginning of modern linguistics.
14.Context: it’s generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.
15.Sentence meaning and Utterance meaning: If we take it as a grammatical unit and consider it as a seli-contained unit in isolation from context, then we are regarding it as a sentence./ If we take it as something a speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then we are taking it to be an utterance. 区别：the meaning of sentence is abstract, and decontextualized, an utterance is concrete, contextualized. 联系：The meaning of an utterance is based on sentence meaning, it’s the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.
Eg. Now take the sentence “The room is messy” as an example. Semantic analysis of the
meaning of the sentence results in the one-place predication ROOM(BE MESSY). Then a pragmatic analysis of the utterance will revel what the speaker intend to do with it. For example, it could have been uttered by a mother and her son, when a mother entered into her son’s room, and found his room was in disorder. Thus she said to her son:”The room is messy.” She in fact was blaming him for laziness and asked him to clean it.
16.Speech act theory言语行为理论:
(1)首先John Austin. It’s an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. it’s a philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication. it aims to answer the question ”what do we do when using language?” Austin’s model: Constatives叙事话语：were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable. performatives行事话语:did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable 然后又建立了三种行为理论：locutionary act言内行为→句子词组的表面意义, illocutionary act言外行为→暗含义, perlocutionary act言后行为→执行的动作，以you have left the door wide open为例. Locutionary act:: expressed what each word of this sentence literally mean. illocutionary act: expressed his intention of speaking, asking someone to close the door. Perlocutionary act: someone heard the sentence, and close the door, then this act is successfully performed.语言学家对言外行为illocutionary act最感兴趣
(2).美国哲学语言学家John Searle对言外行为分成了5类1)阐述性Representatives---stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true例词:stating, believing, swearing, hypothesizing最有代表性, 2)指令性Directives---trying to get the hearer to do something 例词:inviting, suggesting ,requesting ,advising ,warning ,threatening, ordering 3)承诺性Commissives--- future例词:promising, undertaking, vowing 4)表达类Expressives---the speaker is expressing his feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs.例词:apologizing ,thanking, congratulating 5)宣告类Declarations---the successful performance of an act of this type brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality. 例句I now declare the meeting open/I appoint you chairman of the committee/I fire you. 这五类differ in their strength or force.
17.Principle of conversation会话原则→Cooperative Principle合作原则: In Grice’s view, to converse with each other, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate;
otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. This general principle is called the Cooperative Principle(CP) 1) the maxim of Quantity数量原则---你说的话应包含所需内容且不可超过内容要求 eg. A: When is Susan’s farewell party? B: Sometime next month. 2）the maxim of Quality 质量原则---不说你认为是假的话或你缺乏足够证据的话. Eg. A:Would you like to join us for the picnic on Sunday? B:I’m afraid I have got a class on Sunday. 3)the maxim of relation关系原则--使你的话与话题相关 eg. A:How did math exam go today,Tom? B:We had a Basketball match with the other class and we beat them. 4)the maxim of manner方式原则--避免模糊、歧义，应简明有序。 Eg. A: Shall we get something for the kids. B: Yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.
18.Addition of new words 1)Coinage创新词：A new word can be coined outright to fit some purpose, mostly for new things and objects. Eg. digital camera, Taikonaut. 2)Clipped words 缩略词. Eg: quake—earthquake, script—prescription. 3)Blending 紧缩法：A blending is a word formed by combining parts of other words. Eg: smog=smoke+fog, motel=motor+hotel. 4)Acronym首字母Acronyms are words derived from the initials of several words. Eg: IT—information technology, WTO—World Trade Organization.
5)Back-formation逆构词法New words may be coined from already existing words by “subtracting” an affix thought to be part of the old word. eg: to edit(derived from editor on the mistaken assumption that “or” was the agentive) , to beg(derived from beggar) 6)Functional shift:功能转换 Words may shift from one part speech to another without the addition of affixes, which s also called conversion. Eg: Noun-verb: to knee, to bug to tape 7)Borrowing 借词When different cultures come into contact, words are often “borrowed” from one language to another. The loan word may label a new concept, or it may replace or become a synonym of a native word. Eg: Chinese: tea, kowtow, sampan
19. Semantic Change. 1)Semantic broadening语义扩大eg: holiday [+specific] →holy day
[+general] →any rest day
2)Semantic narrowing语义缩小 the word “deer”’, the narrowing of meaning: any animal→a particular kind animal 3)Semantic shift语义转换 ~elevation of meaning 意义的提升：The overworked Modern English word “nice” meant “ignorant” a thousand years ago. ~degradation of meaning意义的降落：lust used to mean simply “pleasure” with no negative or sexual overtones and immoral meant “not customary”.
20. Sociolinguistics: It’s the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and social structures in which the users of language live.
21.Dialectal varieties方言变体→different user
(1)Regional dialect地域方言: A regional dialect is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region.
(2)Sociolect社会方言: Sociolect refers to the linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class.
(3)Language and gender 语言和性别~Male and female speeches are also found to be different in the use of intonations声调 ~~Gender differentiation is also reflected in the use of certain lexical items.某些词汇项的使用
(4)Language and age (5)Idiolect个人语言: An individual speaker’s regional and social background, his/her gender and age jointly determine the way he/she talks. (6)Ethnic dialect种族方言→Black English
22. Register语域→different use
The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register. Field of discourse语场→the area, refers to what is going on. It answers the questions of “why” and “about what”.
Tenor of discourse语旨→refers to the role of relationship. It answers the question of “to whom”. It determines the level of formality and the level of technicality of the language we use.
Mode of discourse语式→refers to the means of communication. It is concerned with “how” 分为speaking and writing
23.Degree of formality正式度.1)intimate 2)casual 3)consultative 4)formal 5)frozen
24.Standard dialect标准语:The standard dialect is a particular variety of a language in that it is not related to any particular group of language users, but it is the variety which any member of a speech community can possibly use regardless of his social and geographical backgrounds, his gender and age.
25.A pidgin洋泾浜 is a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading.
26.Creole克里奥尔语When a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to have become a creole.
27.Bilingualism双语现象It has been observed that in some speech communities, two languages are used side by side each having a different role to play; and language switching occurs when the situation changes, This constitutes the situation of Bilingualism
28.diglossia双语 The term diglossia, first used by Ferguson in 1959, refers to a sociolinguistic situation similar to bilingualism. But instead of two different languages, in a diglossia situation two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play.
29.Culture: In a broad sense, means integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, and behavior that is both a result of and integral to the human capacity for learning and transmitting knowledge to succeeding generations. In a narrow sense, culture may refer to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs, which can be manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture,etc.
30.Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis萨丕尔-沃尔夫假说: different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around, and so they think and speak differently: this is the well-known linguistic relativity. Sapir and Whorf believe that language filters people’s perception and the way they categorize their experiences. This interdependence of language and thought is now known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis(SWH) 分类: a strong version→determine, a weak version→influences
31.Any linguistic sign may simultaneously have a denotative外延, connotative隐含, or iconic图标（1.greetings and terms of address问候语和称呼语, 2.gretitude and compliments感激语和称赞语, 3.colour words, 4, privacy and taboos,隐私语禁忌语
5.rounding off numbers数字处理, 6,words and cultural-specific connotations词汇在不同语言中的暗含意义, 7.cultural-related idioms, proverbs and metaphors习语，谚语，隐喻）
32.Acculturation文化交流:is a process of changing in material culture, traditional practices, and beliefs that occurs when one group’s cultural system interferes with that of another, directly or indirectly challenging the latter to adapt to the ways of the former.
33.Assimilation同化作用is the process whereby individuals or groups of differing ethnicity are absorbed into the dominant culture of a society—though not always completely.
34.Language acquisition 语言习得refers to a child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language and his community.
35.A behaviorist view of language acquistion行为主义者眼中的语言习得观→B.F.Skinners
(1) Traditional behaviorists view language as a kind of behavior and believe that language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation. Advantage: The behaviorist theory of child language acquisition offers a reasonable account of how children acquire some of the regular and routine aspects the language. Disadvantage: yet it fails to explain how they acquire more complex grammatical structures of the language.
(2)An innatist view of language acquisition天赋主义
1)Language Acquisition Device: Chomsky proposed that human beings are born with an innate ability known as Language Acquisition Device(LAD) 语言习得机制
2)Universal Grammar(UG): The LAD was described as an imaginary “black box” is said to contain principles that are universal to all human languages. Children need access to the samples of a natural language to activate the LAD which enables them to discover his language’s structure by matching the innate knowledge of basic grammatical system to that particular language. Later Chomsky referred this innate endowment as Universal Grammar(UG)
36.Critical Period Hypothesis(CPH)关键期假说→Eric Lenneberg, a biologist, argued that the LAD, like other biological functions, works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time—a specific and limited time period for language acquisition—which is referred to as the Critical Period Hypothesis
Two versions of the CPH: (1).the strong one suggests that children must acquire their first language by puberty or they will never be able to learn from subsequent exposure. (2). the weak holds that language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty.
37.Second language acquisition(SLA) 第二语言习得refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.
38.Contrastive Analysis(CA)对比分析: Starting with describing comparable features of the native language and the target language(e.g. tense, words or expressions etc.), contrastive analysis compares the forms and meanings across these two languages to locate the mismatches or differences so that people can predict the possible learning difficulty learners may encounter. 分类：positive transfer正迁移→facilitate target language learning促进, negative transfer负迁移→interfere.
39.Error Analysis错误分析→分类:
1）The interlingual errors语际错误: The interlingual errors mainly result from cross-linguistic interference at different levels such as phonological, lexical, grammatical or discoursal,etc.
2）The intralingual errors语内错误mainly result from faulty or partial learning of the target language, independent of the native language.语内错误包括(1)Overgeneralization过度概括: Overgeneralization is defined as the use of previously available strategies in new situations. (2)Cross-association互相联想:In English we sometimes may come across words which are similar in meaning. Their spelling and pronunciation are also alike. The close association of the two often leads to confusion. Such interference is often referred as cross-association
40.Errors defined as unintentional deviants from the target language and not self-corrigible by the learn, suggest failure in competence能力. Mistakes, defined as either intentional or unintentional deviant forms and self-corrigible, suggest failure in performance行为
41.Interlanguage中介语—S.Pit Corder and Larry Selinker 特征:systematicity系统性, permeability渗透性, fossilization语言石化
42. Input hypothesis 输入假说—Krashen assumed that there were two independent means or routes of second language learning: acquisition and learning.
Acquisition is a process similar to the way children acquire their first language. It is a subconscious process without minute learning of grammatical rules. People refer to it as implicit learning, informal learning or natural learning etc. learning refers to conscious efforts to learn the second language knowledge by learning the rules and talking about the rules.
In addition to the distinction, Krashen put forward that learners advance their language learning gradually by receiving “comprehensible input”可理解输入. He defined comprehensible input as “i + 1”: i represents learners’ current state of knowledge, the next stage is the i + 1. By providing comprehensible input which is slightly above the learners’ current level, the learners’ LAD will be activated and contribute to acquisition.
1.Major sense relations
(1)Synonymy:同义关系 refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. ①Dialectal synonyms—synonyms used in different regional dialects. Eg. British English: autumn. American English: fall. ②Stylistic synonyms---Synonyms differing in style. Eg. Start, begin, commence ③Synonyms that different in their emotive or evaluative meaning. Eg. The two words collaborator and accomplice are synonymous inthat they share the meaning of “a person who helps another”, but they differ in that a collaborator helps another in doing something good, while an accomplice helps another ina criminal act. ④Semantically different synonyms. Eg. The two words amaze and astound are very close in meaning to the word surprise, but have very subtle differences. While amaze suggests confusion and bewilderment, astound suggests difficulty in believing. ⑤Collocational synonyms. Eg. charge…. With, rebuke….for, sour milk
(2).Polysemy:多义现象It refers to different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. Eg. If we look up he word “table” in any dictionary, we will find the following meanings: 1)a piece of furniture, 2)all the people seated at table, 3)the food that is put on the table, 4)a thin flat piece of stone, metal, wood, etc, and so on
(3).Homonymy同音异义refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form. 1)Homophones同音异义—when two words are identical in sound. Eg. Meet/meat; son/sun; night/knight; Homonymy Homographs同形异义—when two words are identical in spelling. Eg. minute n/minute adj; tear v./ tear n ; lead v./lead n. Complete homonyms—when two words are identical in both spelling and sound. Eg. Fast adj./ fast v. scale n./scale v.
(4).Hyponymy下义关系It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. the word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate上义词, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms下义词. Eg. Superordinate: animal, hyponyms: dog, cat, tiger, lion, fox, bear.
(5)Antonymy 反义关系It’s the term used for oppositeness of meaning. ①Gradable antonyms分级反义词(a matter of degree). Eg.Old—middle-aged—young; hot-warm-cold . ② Complementary antonyms互补反义词(the denial of one member of pair implies the
assertion of the other) . Eg. Alive—dead; male—female; ③Relational opposites关系反义词(Pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items are called relational opposites)Eg. father-son; teacher-pupil; doctor-patient; buy-sell; above-below; north-south
2.Semantics：can be defined as the study of meaning.
3.The naming theory--Plato. words are just names or labels for things. Limitation: 1.this theory seems applicable to nouns only. 2.within the category of nouns, there are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world at all.
4.The conceptualist view: there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind../ semantic triangle语义三角, triangle of significance意义三角
5.Contextualism：J.R.Firth. It’s based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts./ the situational and the linguistic context.
6.Behaviorism: Bloomfield. It refers to the attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the” situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.
7.Sense: It’s concerned with the of the linguistic form. It’s of the linguistic form, it’s meaning dictionary compiliers are interested)
8.Reference: It means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world, it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.
A certain sense can be realized by more than one references, a certain reference can be expressed by more than one sense. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.
9.sense relation between sentences句子间的意义关系X is synonymous with Y. (同义), X is inconsistent with Y.(不一致)， X entails Y.(X包含于Y中), X presupposes Y. (Y是X的先决条件)，X is a contradiction.(自我矛盾) , X is semantically anomalous. (语义反常)
10.Componential analysis(CA) 成分分析—a way to analyze lexical meaning. It is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. The approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components,
called Semantic features.
Plus and minimums signs are used to indicate whether a certain semantic feature is present or absent, these feature symbols are usually written in capitalized letters. Eg. Boy=[+HUMAN] [-ADULT] [+MALE] man=[+HUMAN] [+ADULT] [+MALE]
11.Predication Analysis 述谓结构分析—a way to analyze sentence meaning, 由British Linguist G.Leech提出Predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence, it applies to all forms of a sentence, including statements, imperative and interrogative. (the meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components.)1)grammatical
2)semantic meaning.
Predication consists of Arguments变元and Predicates谓词. An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal elements in a sentence, a predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence. one-place predication eg, “Tom smokes” argument:”TOM” predicate: “SMOKE”, the predition: TOM(SMOKE), two-place predication) eg, “Kids like apples” KID,APPLE(LIKE), no-place predication eg, “It is hot”(BET HOT).
12.Pragmatics: 语用学Pragmatics is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.
13.Pragmatics VS Semantics: distinguish→context, The publication of Saussure’s work Course of General Linguistics in the early 20th century marked the beginning of modern linguistics.
14.Context: it’s generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.
15.Sentence meaning and Utterance meaning: If we take it as a grammatical unit and consider it as a seli-contained unit in isolation from context, then we are regarding it as a sentence./ If we take it as something a speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then we are taking it to be an utterance. 区别：the meaning of sentence is abstract, and decontextualized, an utterance is concrete, contextualized. 联系：The meaning of an utterance is based on sentence meaning, it’s the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.
Eg. Now take the sentence “The room is messy” as an example. Semantic analysis of the
meaning of the sentence results in the one-place predication ROOM(BE MESSY). Then a pragmatic analysis of the utterance will revel what the speaker intend to do with it. For example, it could have been uttered by a mother and her son, when a mother entered into her son’s room, and found his room was in disorder. Thus she said to her son:”The room is messy.” She in fact was blaming him for laziness and asked him to clean it.
16.Speech act theory言语行为理论:
(1)首先John Austin. It’s an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. it’s a philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication. it aims to answer the question ”what do we do when using language?” Austin’s model: Constatives叙事话语：were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable. performatives行事话语:did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable 然后又建立了三种行为理论：locutionary act言内行为→句子词组的表面意义, illocutionary act言外行为→暗含义, perlocutionary act言后行为→执行的动作，以you have left the door wide open为例. Locutionary act:: expressed what each word of this sentence literally mean. illocutionary act: expressed his intention of speaking, asking someone to close the door. Perlocutionary act: someone heard the sentence, and close the door, then this act is successfully performed.语言学家对言外行为illocutionary act最感兴趣
(2).美国哲学语言学家John Searle对言外行为分成了5类1)阐述性Representatives---stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true例词:stating, believing, swearing, hypothesizing最有代表性, 2)指令性Directives---trying to get the hearer to do something 例词:inviting, suggesting ,requesting ,advising ,warning ,threatening, ordering 3)承诺性Commissives--- future例词:promising, undertaking, vowing 4)表达类Expressives---the speaker is expressing his feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs.例词:apologizing ,thanking, congratulating 5)宣告类Declarations---the successful performance of an act of this type brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality. 例句I now declare the meeting open/I appoint you chairman of the committee/I fire you. 这五类differ in their strength or force.
17.Principle of conversation会话原则→Cooperative Principle合作原则: In Grice’s view, to converse with each other, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate;
otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. This general principle is called the Cooperative Principle(CP) 1) the maxim of Quantity数量原则---你说的话应包含所需内容且不可超过内容要求 eg. A: When is Susan’s farewell party? B: Sometime next month. 2）the maxim of Quality 质量原则---不说你认为是假的话或你缺乏足够证据的话. Eg. A:Would you like to join us for the picnic on Sunday? B:I’m afraid I have got a class on Sunday. 3)the maxim of relation关系原则--使你的话与话题相关 eg. A:How did math exam go today,Tom? B:We had a Basketball match with the other class and we beat them. 4)the maxim of manner方式原则--避免模糊、歧义，应简明有序。 Eg. A: Shall we get something for the kids. B: Yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.
18.Addition of new words 1)Coinage创新词：A new word can be coined outright to fit some purpose, mostly for new things and objects. Eg. digital camera, Taikonaut. 2)Clipped words 缩略词. Eg: quake—earthquake, script—prescription. 3)Blending 紧缩法：A blending is a word formed by combining parts of other words. Eg: smog=smoke+fog, motel=motor+hotel. 4)Acronym首字母Acronyms are words derived from the initials of several words. Eg: IT—information technology, WTO—World Trade Organization.
5)Back-formation逆构词法New words may be coined from already existing words by “subtracting” an affix thought to be part of the old word. eg: to edit(derived from editor on the mistaken assumption that “or” was the agentive) , to beg(derived from beggar) 6)Functional shift:功能转换 Words may shift from one part speech to another without the addition of affixes, which s also called conversion. Eg: Noun-verb: to knee, to bug to tape 7)Borrowing 借词When different cultures come into contact, words are often “borrowed” from one language to another. The loan word may label a new concept, or it may replace or become a synonym of a native word. Eg: Chinese: tea, kowtow, sampan
19. Semantic Change. 1)Semantic broadening语义扩大eg: holiday [+specific] →holy day
[+general] →any rest day
2)Semantic narrowing语义缩小 the word “deer”’, the narrowing of meaning: any animal→a particular kind animal 3)Semantic shift语义转换 ~elevation of meaning 意义的提升：The overworked Modern English word “nice” meant “ignorant” a thousand years ago. ~degradation of meaning意义的降落：lust used to mean simply “pleasure” with no negative or sexual overtones and immoral meant “not customary”.
20. Sociolinguistics: It’s the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and social structures in which the users of language live.
21.Dialectal varieties方言变体→different user
(1)Regional dialect地域方言: A regional dialect is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region.
(2)Sociolect社会方言: Sociolect refers to the linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class.
(3)Language and gender 语言和性别~Male and female speeches are also found to be different in the use of intonations声调 ~~Gender differentiation is also reflected in the use of certain lexical items.某些词汇项的使用
(4)Language and age (5)Idiolect个人语言: An individual speaker’s regional and social background, his/her gender and age jointly determine the way he/she talks. (6)Ethnic dialect种族方言→Black English
22. Register语域→different use
The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register. Field of discourse语场→the area, refers to what is going on. It answers the questions of “why” and “about what”.
Tenor of discourse语旨→refers to the role of relationship. It answers the question of “to whom”. It determines the level of formality and the level of technicality of the language we use.
Mode of discourse语式→refers to the means of communication. It is concerned with “how” 分为speaking and writing
23.Degree of formality正式度.1)intimate 2)casual 3)consultative 4)formal 5)frozen
24.Standard dialect标准语:The standard dialect is a particular variety of a language in that it is not related to any particular group of language users, but it is the variety which any member of a speech community can possibly use regardless of his social and geographical backgrounds, his gender and age.
25.A pidgin洋泾浜 is a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading.
26.Creole克里奥尔语When a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to have become a creole.
27.Bilingualism双语现象It has been observed that in some speech communities, two languages are used side by side each having a different role to play; and language switching occurs when the situation changes, This constitutes the situation of Bilingualism
28.diglossia双语 The term diglossia, first used by Ferguson in 1959, refers to a sociolinguistic situation similar to bilingualism. But instead of two different languages, in a diglossia situation two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play.
29.Culture: In a broad sense, means integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, and behavior that is both a result of and integral to the human capacity for learning and transmitting knowledge to succeeding generations. In a narrow sense, culture may refer to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs, which can be manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture,etc.
30.Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis萨丕尔-沃尔夫假说: different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around, and so they think and speak differently: this is the well-known linguistic relativity. Sapir and Whorf believe that language filters people’s perception and the way they categorize their experiences. This interdependence of language and thought is now known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis(SWH) 分类: a strong version→determine, a weak version→influences
31.Any linguistic sign may simultaneously have a denotative外延, connotative隐含, or iconic图标（1.greetings and terms of address问候语和称呼语, 2.gretitude and compliments感激语和称赞语, 3.colour words, 4, privacy and taboos,隐私语禁忌语
5.rounding off numbers数字处理, 6,words and cultural-specific connotations词汇在不同语言中的暗含意义, 7.cultural-related idioms, proverbs and metaphors习语，谚语，隐喻）
32.Acculturation文化交流:is a process of changing in material culture, traditional practices, and beliefs that occurs when one group’s cultural system interferes with that of another, directly or indirectly challenging the latter to adapt to the ways of the former.
33.Assimilation同化作用is the process whereby individuals or groups of differing ethnicity are absorbed into the dominant culture of a society—though not always completely.
34.Language acquisition 语言习得refers to a child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language and his community.
35.A behaviorist view of language acquistion行为主义者眼中的语言习得观→B.F.Skinners
(1) Traditional behaviorists view language as a kind of behavior and believe that language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation. Advantage: The behaviorist theory of child language acquisition offers a reasonable account of how children acquire some of the regular and routine aspects the language. Disadvantage: yet it fails to explain how they acquire more complex grammatical structures of the language.
(2)An innatist view of language acquisition天赋主义
1)Language Acquisition Device: Chomsky proposed that human beings are born with an innate ability known as Language Acquisition Device(LAD) 语言习得机制
2)Universal Grammar(UG): The LAD was described as an imaginary “black box” is said to contain principles that are universal to all human languages. Children need access to the samples of a natural language to activate the LAD which enables them to discover his language’s structure by matching the innate knowledge of basic grammatical system to that particular language. Later Chomsky referred this innate endowment as Universal Grammar(UG)
36.Critical Period Hypothesis(CPH)关键期假说→Eric Lenneberg, a biologist, argued that the LAD, like other biological functions, works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time—a specific and limited time period for language acquisition—which is referred to as the Critical Period Hypothesis
Two versions of the CPH: (1).the strong one suggests that children must acquire their first language by puberty or they will never be able to learn from subsequent exposure. (2). the weak holds that language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty.
37.Second language acquisition(SLA) 第二语言习得refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.
38.Contrastive Analysis(CA)对比分析: Starting with describing comparable features of the native language and the target language(e.g. tense, words or expressions etc.), contrastive analysis compares the forms and meanings across these two languages to locate the mismatches or differences so that people can predict the possible learning difficulty learners may encounter. 分类：positive transfer正迁移→facilitate target language learning促进, negative transfer负迁移→interfere.
39.Error Analysis错误分析→分类:
1）The interlingual errors语际错误: The interlingual errors mainly result from cross-linguistic interference at different levels such as phonological, lexical, grammatical or discoursal,etc.
2）The intralingual errors语内错误mainly result from faulty or partial learning of the target language, independent of the native language.语内错误包括(1)Overgeneralization过度概括: Overgeneralization is defined as the use of previously available strategies in new situations. (2)Cross-association互相联想:In English we sometimes may come across words which are similar in meaning. Their spelling and pronunciation are also alike. The close association of the two often leads to confusion. Such interference is often referred as cross-association
40.Errors defined as unintentional deviants from the target language and not self-corrigible by the learn, suggest failure in competence能力. Mistakes, defined as either intentional or unintentional deviant forms and self-corrigible, suggest failure in performance行为
41.Interlanguage中介语—S.Pit Corder and Larry Selinker 特征:systematicity系统性, permeability渗透性, fossilization语言石化
42. Input hypothesis 输入假说—Krashen assumed that there were two independent means or routes of second language learning: acquisition and learning.
Acquisition is a process similar to the way children acquire their first language. It is a subconscious process without minute learning of grammatical rules. People refer to it as implicit learning, informal learning or natural learning etc. learning refers to conscious efforts to learn the second language knowledge by learning the rules and talking about the rules.
In addition to the distinction, Krashen put forward that learners advance their language learning gradually by receiving “comprehensible input”可理解输入. He defined comprehensible input as “i + 1”: i represents learners’ current state of knowledge, the next stage is the i + 1. By providing comprehensible input which is slightly above the learners’ current level, the learners’ LAD will be activated and contribute to acquisition.