Vitamins ---- Translation
1. Researchers found that the level of vitamin C stored in the body of the victim with a common cold fell drastically and was close to the level of people suffering from scurvy.
2. Minor degrees of vitamin C deficiency are common, though outright scurvy only occur when the diet is markedly deficient in fresh fruits and vegetables.
3. Vitamins are organic compounds that must be supplied in the diet or injected into the body to maintain health.
4. Vitamins produce no energy but play an essential role in the transformation of energy and in the regulation of metabolism.
5. Vitamins are classified/distinguished by the letters of the alphabet, such as vitamins A, C, D, E, K and the B-complex.
6. Vitamins and minerals are found in small amounts and are needed in minute quantities, as compared with the other nutrients.
7. The diseases which develop from the absence of vitamins are known as vitamin deficiency diseases. For example, a lack of vitamin A brings about night blindness; a deficiency of vitamin D results in rickets.
8. Some vitamins are soluble in fats whereas others are soluble in water. They are, therefore, termed fat-soluble and water soluble vitamins respectively.
9. In addition to the general nutrients, another two groups of nutrients, vitamins and inorganic, or mineral, salts are also required by the body.
10. M ost nutrients contain more than one nutrient, but no single food contains all the nutrients in the amounts you need.
食物抗癌
1. O verwhelming statistical evidence shows that smokers are more likely to develop cancer of the lung, throat, and tongue than are non-smokers.
2. F ruits and vegetables are chock-full of a variety of antioxidants which can snuff out oxygen free radicals, substances that are thought to make cells more susceptible to cancer.
3. A well-balanced diet will give your body various nutrients of vitamins, minerals, proteins, starches, and sugars that it needs to operate smoothly.
4. T he risk of lung cancer is directly related to the number of cigarettes smoked each day--the higher the number, the higher the risk.
5. E ven smokers may be protected from developing lung cancer by a daily portion of carrots, spinach or any other vegetables and fruits.
6. S ome studies of animals and humans have suggested that vitamin A offers some protection against lung cancer.
7. F urther studies will be necessary before the link between lung cancer and carotene can be firmly established.
8. A nimal studies show that garlic blocks carcinogens that have been linked to colon and stomach cancer.
9. A diet of more fruits and vegetables will undoubtedly play a major role in reducing cancer incidence as well as the number of deaths caused by the disease.
10.Beta-carotene not only has a direct toxic effect on tumor cells, but also reduces the growth of lung-cancer cells and altered the proteins needed for tumors to grow.
化学与物质----Translation
1. B riefly speaking, a scientist differs from an artist mainly in that a scientist not only interprets the outer world, but also tries to transform it into a better one.
2. S cience begins with necessity, curiosity, and questions about the unexplained phenomena in nature.
3. T he ways in which an element or a compound combines or reacts with other things are its chemical properties.
4. T he chemist is interested in the composition and properties of substances and the transformations they undergo during a chemical reaction.
5. I t is very easy to fall into the habit of taking some painkiller when there is any slight pain.
6. T he delicate operations performed by surgeons today would not be possible without anesthetics.
7. T oday it is generally recognised that the human body is a chemical factory in which countless complex chemical and physical
changes are constantly taking place.
8. T he substance salt is composed of the metal sodium and the corrosive gas chlorine, but its chemical properties are quite different from those of sodium and chlorine.
9. C hemotherapy is the treatment of disease by the administration of chemical substances which kill or prevent the growth of pathogenic organisms within the body.
10.Substances that lessen pain but do not affect other sensations are called pain relieving drugs.
麻醉药 Translation
1. It is not many years since a man who had to have an operation felt all its pain.
2. I t is attributable to the discovery of anesthetics that surgeons can now perform all kinds of operations without causing pain.
3. S pinal anesthesia produces excellent anesthesia and relaxation for the performance of many operations on the lower parts of the body.
4. T he exact mechanism in which the general anesthetic drugs exert their effect on the brain is still unknown, although many theories have been proposed.
5. T he introduction of anesthetics to surgery has made possible much more delicate and lengthy operations, thus greatly extending the field of surgery.
6. N arcotics are applied to those drugs which are sedative in their action upon the body but which also produce insensibility to pain.
7. C ontrary to what one might think, it’s only 50 years or so since penicillin, the antibiotic once regarded as the wonder drug, came into being.
8. S cientists point out that since the sedative action of a drug results from its effect on the nerves, it must possess solubility in the fluids of the body which surround the nerves.
9. A n anesthetic must be volatile if it is to be administered through oral inhalation, while those which can be administered through the rectum or injected into the spine do not have to be volatile.
10. In spite of the danger of a patient’s contracting pneumonia after the use of ether as an anesthetic, ether is still widely employed because the anesthesia it produces is one of deep relaxation.
绿色药房-草药Translation
1. T he plant kingdom was once man’s only pharmacy. Yet when you enter a modern chemist’s shop today, you can hardly find a sign of the use of plants in medicine.
2. T oday the number of plants used in medicine has decreased, but hidden away in many pills, capsules, and medicine bottles are the active chemicals originally found in the plant kingdom.
3. S ome chemicals which plants make may be poisonous, others may be chemicals that are extremely valuable to us as medicines.
4. D uring the many thousands of years that man has been on the earth, he has been trying out various plants that grew around him.
5. T here has existed for many years mistrust, suspicion or hostility between the orthodox and the herbal practitioner which threatens the possibility of a good working relationship.
6. W hen one considers the therapeutic impact of quinine, it is evident how great is the debt of medicine to plant-derived drugs.
7. H owever, the past few decades have witnessed an obvious diminution in the number of plant-derived drugs introduced into medicine.
8. T he legacy of traditional Chinese medicine is a treasure house with an inexhaustible supply of new potential drugs which is to be explored with an introduction of new approaches.
9. H ad pharmacological approaches not been introduced into the investigation of Vinca rosea, the discovery of vincalcukoblastine would have been postponed by many years.
10.Western practitioners find it difficult to believe that someone who knows nothing of a disease mechanism could still be capable of curing it.
Natural Products
1. One of the oldest of human activities is the study of plants and animals, particularly as sources of food.
2.From the earliest times man had to distinguish between those plants which were poisonous and those which were not and there gradually developed a knowledge of natural drugs.
3. As late as the beginning of the present century pharmacognosy had developed mainly on the botanical side, being particularly concerned with the description and identification of drugs.
4.Undoubtedly the plant kingdom still holds many species of plants containing substances of medical value which have yet to be discovered.
5. As a result of modern isolation and pharmacological testing procedures, new plant drugs usually find their way into medicine as purified substances.
6. Many of the botanical, chemical and physical techniques employed in pharmacognosy are also applicable to the analysis of other commodities, such as foods, spices and cosmetics.
7. While pharmacognosy has been generally studied for practical purposes and may thus be called an applied science it has played an important role in the development of the pure sciences.
8. Recent phytochemical examination of plants which have a suitable history of use in folklore for the treatment of cancer has, indeed, often resulted in the isolation of principles with antitumour activity.
9. The growth of knowledge of biochemistry and physiology, which led to the concept of the chemical control of biological processes, has been of particular importance for pharmacology.
10. Primitive man depended on preventive use of nature’s stock of plants and herbs to avoid disease and to maintain health and vigor. 有机化学 Translation
1. The remarkable advances made in modern medicine would not have been possible without the aid of chemistry.
2. Since the body is essentially a chemical machine, a knowledge of the chemistry of bodily functions seems essential to the physician.
3. The production of food by plants and animals involves the rearrangement of atoms in molecules.
4. Fortunately, few kinds of work seem to urge people on to success more effectively than does the pursuit of chemistry.
5. So far the motive behind the search for synthetics has been a wish to produce better things for less money, and for more people.
6. Isolation of increasing numbers of purified materials from living forms and recognition of the fact that all contained carbon gave birth to organic chemistry.
7. When coal is burned in a furnace it combines with oxygen to give carbon dioxide, a new substance with different composition and properties from coal and oxygen.
8. Many specific chemical reactions are important because of the energy which they use or supply.
9. In the study of organic chemistry, students are expected to use familiar symbols which are constructed into two- or three-dimensional molecular formulas.
10.From the food we eat, the clothes we wear to the buildings we live in, all have been fashioned to a considerable extent by organic chemistry.
新药研制 1 Translation
1. F ormerly, drugs were extracted from natural plants and animal sources, and therapeutic use was based on traditional experience.
2. D rug development strategies involve serendipity, molecular roulette, programmed basic research with synthesis of specific chemical, etc..
3. T hough it’s the most satisfying in the development of new drugs, the approach is expensive and there is no guarantee of success.
4. W hen a drug is used by millions, there are certain to be adverse reactions even though the risk to any individual is small.
5. M ost drugs have a safe upper limit of dosage; beyond this toxic effects may be expected to occur.
6. P enicillin, one of the most powerful killers of bacteria was discovered quite by accident by Alexander Fleming.
7. P harmacological experiment on a new drug determines whether the drug has the desired profile of action in model system.
8. T he increase in knowledge of biochemical mechanisms results in a more rational approach to the development of new drugs.
9. E xtensive formal toxicological tests are required before a new drug can be used on patients.
10.Chemists and biologists have now attached great importance to such fields of research as molecular biology and biochemical
pharmacology.
新药研制 2 Translation
1. T he rationale for the development of new drugs should be provide better drugs; better in the sense of being either more effective, safer or cheaper.
2. T he representative of the pharmaceutical manufacturer has been specially trained to promote his particular new product.
3. O nly after animal studies have proved efficacy can clinical evaluation of new drugs be undertaken.
4. N ew drug evaluation in man can be divided into four phases each of which should be conducted under strict supervision.
5. A dose-ranging study should only be performed on volunteers who are informed about the implications of the tests, and who give their consent freely.
6. D ose-ranging studies should only be performed under medical supervision, as there exist some possible risks during the test.
7. L arge scale clinical trials in Phase 3 are to establish new drug’s profile of action and frequency of adverse effects.
8. T he expensive cost in drug development is borne by the pharmaceutical manufacturer, which justifiably expects to recoup it when the product is finally marketed.
9. I nformation about the new drug published in well-established journals is more reliable than that offered by the medical representative whose livelihood depends on the ability to promote the product.
10.Heavy investment in promotion has not simply led to the use of undistinguished new drugs, but to a higher cost of the drugs as well.
药理学范畴 Translation
1. T he science of the effects of drugs on the body is called pharmacology, and the scientists who study it are pharmacologists.
2. P harmacology is not a science that can be studied on its own, but that closely related to other branches of science.
3. P harmacologists should not only understand the normal processes that take place in the body, but know how the functions of the body are affected by disease.
4. P roperly used, drugs are great blessing to mankind; improperly used, they could destroy the race.
5. D uring the first part of the twentieth century there have been enormous strides in the field of pharmacology.
6. M an continues to strive, not only for a longer life span, but for a healthier one as well.
7. W ith the frequent use of more than one therapeutic agent by a patient, particularly the elderly, drug interactions that result in toxicity are likely events.
8. T he clinician is interested primarily in drugs that are useful in the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of human diseases.
9. M ost of the natural drugs are now highly purified and differ little from synthetic chemicals, the interests of the clinician in pharmacognosy are correspondingly decreased.
10.As a border science, pharmacodynamics borrows freely from both the theories and experimental techniques of physiology, biochemistry, immunology, pathology, etc..
良药滥用-----Translation
1. A lthough the development of antibiotics has been of incalculable benefit to mankind, it has also given rise to serious complications.
2. T he widespread use of antibiotics has resulted in the natural evolution of strains of disease germs which are resistant to such medications.
3. A new multidrug-resistant tuberculosis, now prevalent in the world, causes serious infections that may not respond to chemotherapy.
4. S ome antibiotics are effective against a large range of microorganisms, they are, therefore, known as broad-spectrum antibiotics.
5. S ome drugs may not cause physical dependence, or addiction, but many persons do become habituated to their use.
6. D rug abuse is thought of as the misuse of drugs potentially harmful to the individual user or to society.
7. M any persons, believing that antibiotics can cure any disease, press their doctors for a dose of penicillin for such virus ailment as influenza.
8. A ddiction is the body’s continued need for drugs because of their physiological effects after they are first taken.
9. I n comparison, the inadequacies and potential dangers of antibiotics are much less widely known.
10.Antibiotics are used so carelessly around the world that they are creating a new health threat to mankind.
抗癌的食物（全文翻译）
现在饮食开始被考虑作为抵抗癌症的主要武器。国际癌症协会估计所有的癌症中有三分之一是与饮食有关，并且最近的研究指出吃何种物质可能会意味着减少患癌的风险。
癌症的发展是需要超过一定的时间的，那就意味着你已经有数十年阻碍或者促进它的发展。研究人员发现随着癌症的发展你所吃的食物会从不同的阶段起到阻碍作用。例如，某些食物可能阻碍化学药物而导致癌症。抗氧化剂，在维他命和矿物中被发现，能消灭氧原子的自由基团，某些能够修复细胞损伤的物质通过这个途径使细胞易感从而导致癌症从而消亡。并且在一些环境中含麦麸的食物可以收缩癌症前期的细胞。
一个由具有国际水准的并且来自17个不同国家的研究组织的评论指出那些经常使用水果和蔬菜的人与同期食用较少的人相比患癌症的风险指数仅有一半。那些癌症发生的部位包括：肺，结肠，胸部，宫颈，食道，口腔，胃，膀胱，胰腺和卵巢。事实上，一些研究建议应该多食水果和蔬菜这样能降低患肺癌的风险甚至是吸烟者。一位美国疾病预防控制中心的流行病学家Tim Byers说道：“这是难以理解的一种普通的水果或者蔬菜能够如此有效的抵抗癌症，例如香烟的烟气”。
在一个众多研究存在于水果蔬菜中抗氧化剂的研究中，发现B-胡萝卜素能够保护机体并且抵抗癌症，并且存在于深绿色，黄色，橙色的蔬菜中像：胡萝卜，地瓜和菠菜。水果中含量较高的有杏，哈密瓜。哈弗大学试管研究表明，B-胡萝卜素对摄取有害的肿瘤细胞产生直接的毒性作用。它能减少肺癌细胞的增值以及改变肿瘤细胞增值所需的蛋白质。
研究显示B-胡萝卜素能够改变人体中的视黄酸，一种在临床实验中对抗确切癌症的物质。
这里有一些含有对抗癌症的化学物质的食物：西红柿 西红柿中含有的一种能够减少患癌症风险的成分就是番茄红素，是一种使西红柿变红的色素。番茄红素，一种抗氧化剂，也发现存在于西瓜和杏中，能够阻止诱发癌症的氧原子自由基团。
Hopkins 大学的研究者约翰指出血液中番茄红素含量低于患胰腺癌的风险是有关联的。于正常的个体相比患胰腺癌的患者番茄红素的含量较低。那些血液中番茄红素含量低的人患胰腺癌的风险是那些血液中番茄红素含量正常的人的五倍。
番茄红素存在于西红柿产品中，包括酱油和番茄酱。 绿色蔬菜：近期一个意大利的研究表明黑绿色叶类的蔬菜可以降低患某些癌症的风险。菠菜，西兰花，甘兰，黑绿色的油麦菜都富含抗氧化剂，叶酸和叶黄素。一则非常好的经验就是：深色蔬菜含有丰富的抗氧化剂。
柑橘类水果：一位来自国际癌症协会的毒理学家Herbert Pierson说道要尽可能
的多食用柑橘，葡萄柚，黄柠和青柠，他称柑橘类的水果为癌症包因为它拥有各种天然物质并且能够在动物身上独立存在的中立化学类的类胡萝卜素（像类胡萝卜素 黄铜等其他）。
柑橘类水果尤其能够降低患胰腺癌的风险。一个在瑞典的研究发现，与那些一周吃一次柑橘类水果的人相比几乎每天食用的人可将风险从三分之二降低至一半。
十字花科类的蔬菜：十字花科的蔬菜 像卷心菜，菜花，布鲁塞尔豆芽，西
兰花，甘兰，荠菜和红萝卜，可能会降低乳腺癌的风险。事实上，艾普利协会在奥哈马市内布拉斯加州大学进行的研究表明给动物喂食卷心菜和绿色植物（十字花科植物），结合低脂饮食，可以减少乳腺癌的发病率。生食或者轻微烹饪十字花科蔬菜，久煮可能会破坏其中用来对抗癌症吲哚成分。
十字花科蔬菜也可以阻止胃癌和直肠癌的发生。在美国犹他州的调查显示那些经常使用十字花科蔬菜的人比少食的人患癌症的几率百分之七十。
大豆：大豆被认为至少含有五种抑制癌症的成分。事实上，其中一种化学成分与能够治疗雌性激素乳腺癌且现在被大量用于临床试验验证是否能够治愈疾病的三苯氧胺相似。在动物实验的研究中，从解剖培养和分离癌细胞的直肠，皮肤中也发现了大豆的成分。
麦麸：麦麸可降低患直肠癌的风险。在纽约康乃尔医学中心进行的研究发现每日使用一央司的谷物麦麸可以在六个月内缩小直肠息肉。一些研究者称，更值得注意的是，这么少量的食物在这么短的时间内起作用，并附图解说明饮食干预也可在癌症发病前出现的警告信号之后起作用。
低脂牛奶：牛奶中的饱和脂肪可能会诱发某些癌症有些成分可能会阻止其发生。在纽约的罗斯维尔癌症协会研究发现，不惊奇的是，那些喝牛奶的人比不喝牛奶的人在患口腔癌，胃癌，结肠癌，直肠癌，肺癌，膀胱癌，乳腺癌和宫颈癌的几率。但研究
发现，那些使用低脂牛奶的人比不喝牛奶的人在患口腔癌，胃癌和直肠癌的几率低。为什么？科学家的猜想是在某些方面的基础物质像钙，维生素b2，维他命A,C,D （也存在于全脂牛奶中但是效应较少）在抗肿瘤媒介方面的作用还不明确。
为了从饮食中获得更多的抗癌成分，国际癌症协会建议每天摄取至少五种水果蔬菜。那就意味着食用半杯量的全熟或者生的水果蔬菜，半杯量的绿叶蔬菜，半生的块状水果，六盎司的果汁或者蔬菜汁。饮食建议是低脂肪低卡路里，高纤维，包括各种营养丰富的食物像水果，蔬菜，谷物，豆角，坚果，如果可以低脂肪的蛋白质也可以。
有机化学（全文翻译）
毫无疑问，从事有机化学学习的学生肯定已彻底掌握了大学一年级的化学知识。也就是说他对原子符号、对简单的化学式已了如指掌；对原子的电子结构以及原子间化学键的形成方式已有足够的认识，可以写出简单分子的结构式： 对固、液、气三态性质已有基本概念；他已了解了化合价数目和分子量是如何确定的；了解了何为离子，如何确定其存在；他已具备了对Le Chatelier 原理所阐明的概念的基本使用；而且他还能以内行的眼光来审视周期表。当然，一年级化学所学的许多细节很可能已被遗忘了，所以，有机化学学生如果对什么拿不准的话，最好还是将一年级课本取出随时备考为妥。学生应努力将本课程所学的新内容和旧知识联系起来，与将要研修的其他课程联系起来，例如物理化学，生物化学或工业化学等。
但是，学生将接触到大量新内容。其中部分将由旧内容以新方式组合而成，例如，用我们所熟悉的符号构成二维或三维分子结构式；其余的则是由新引进符号和特定语言所描述的新概念和新思想。因此，学生一定要做好强记的思想准备。既然这是掌握本课程一些内容的唯一便捷途径，学生不妨老老实实地记忆，并熟悉这种学习方法。不过我们应看到该记忆量绝不大于学习外语或比较解剖学所需的记忆量。医学预科生一般都能通过有机化学测试，甚至还会喜欢上该学科。
经验表明，有机化学课程第一学期前半段最为关键。如果学生学好了这部分内容，其余课程就相对容易了。因为有机化学的基本概念有着紧密的内在联系。教程的初始部分至少在整个学习过程中都被不知不觉地应用着，而更多场合则是被直接应用。教程通过内容的不断丰富而进一步深化；它不像旅行那样道路只走一趟。教程初始部分的许多内容看似简单，所以学生很容易将其一带而过。
理科的目的之一便是通过对符号和概念的操作来了解感性世界。 理科中有机化学这一分支, 不仅清楚阐明了符号和概念的操作方法。还从各方面展示了人们在对自然现象理解过程中的收获。 几乎从教程一开始，学生便可欣赏到该学科的展开方式。化学研究的是物质的结构和性质，以及可能导致结构和性质发生变化的化学反应。有机化学研究的是含有碳元素的那些物质。根据该定义，有些亦被称作有机物的化合物已在一年级的化学中学过。例如碳酸盐、醋酸盐和氰化物，当然还有二氧化碳。其中有些化合物，例如碳酸钙和氰化钾，很容易被视为无机物，因为它们的化学性质与许多无机物是何其相似，而且像大理石这样的物质毕竟归属于矿物质。然而煤和石油也是矿物质，但却无人对其是有机物提出异议. 况且，许多无机物都表现出与有机物类似的特性，所以，有机化学和无机化学的区分，不能以化学反应的相似度为准，而完全取决于反应是否有碳元素的存在。在此必须指出，像碳酸盐、亚铁氰化物和铁氰化物、硫氰酸盐等诸类化合物在一年级化学中已有涉猎，这里不再赘述 。
有机化学的重要性。上世纪在有机化学方面的飞速发展为其在工业的实际应用展示了广阔的前景。这些应用已经在数不胜数的领域丰富了我们的生活。有机技术的进展使得社会的方方面面都受到影响---我们吃的食物、穿的衣服、建造的房屋、进行战争的方式、抵御疾病的手段---所有这一切都被有机化学推向了一个更高层面。许多珍贵的天然制品经由化学手段稍作改良，其作用便可进一步提高；更有其他物品从大自然获取十分不易，但却可通过化学手段大量合成，而且价格低廉。近年来，人们已研制出结构和天然物质非常相似的合成物质，但品质更佳、用途更广、优势独特。此外，人类还利用诸如煤、水、空气、石油、天然气和普通农作物等丰富原材料生产出一些早已从大自然销声匿迹的新物质来。 所有这些成就真可谓层出不穷，不胜枚举，即是略数一二也难以周全。
新药研制1（全文翻译）
药物研制旨在生产出在疗效上优于现存药品，且副作用发生率减少、程度降低的新型治疗药物。
1 Evolution of a new Drug
新药研制涉及到多学科研究人员多年的共同研究. 以前，药物是由天然植物和动物体提取的，其治疗作用全凭经验和传统做法来确定。在过去的80年中，通过化学合成，研制出大量新药。随着遗传工程和单克隆抗体的发展，必将研制出更多新药。
合成技术已研制出高纯度药物。这不仅提高了治疗的专一性，有时还提高了疗效，减少了毒副作用。遗憾的是，新药研发的费用太高，并且只有少数研发的新药被实际推上市场。
在研制出的新型化学制品中，有些会产生意想不到的毒副作用。 因此大多数政府都设有药品发行的调节机构，例如：英国的药品安全委员会和美国的食品药品管理局。这些机构负责管理新药的临床研究和审批发行事宜。尽管其作用是保护公众利益，但
申报新药审批所必须遵循的诸多法律手续却大大增加了研制的成本和时间。
有迹象显示，全新药物投入使用的速率正在下降。这一现象或许反映了生产成本过高，或者是新药数量不足或研制能力下降，具体情况尚不清楚。
2. Drug development strategies
历年来在新药研制中采用的几种方法都有所成就，但没有哪种方法是长盛不衰的。
Serendipity, luck and intuition 意外发现、运气和直觉
这种方法近年已较少使用了。弗莱明发现青霉素属于这一类别。
Molecular roulette
对新结构及药理学筛选的随机化学合成。此法耗费巨大，且有赖于得到很难得到的人类疾病的活体标本或试管标本
Minor structural changes in existing agents现有化合物结构修饰
此法偶尔可产生功效更高的化合物，但罕有可能产生药物学筛选和临床实践中被检测出具有全新功效的药物。
Programmed basic research with synthesis of specific chemical对特定化学物质的合成而制定的基础研究
从研究的角度看，这一方法最令人满意。至今已有骄人战绩，例如：治疗帕金森神经功能障碍所用的左旋多巴及多巴胺；治疗心绞痛的β-肾上腺素受体阻滞剂；消化性溃疡使用的组胺拮抗药；用于高血压的转换酶抑制剂。不过，此法耗费巨大，且前景莫测。 Clinical observation of drug action in Practice 使用中药物作用的临床观察
这是药物评估的传统方法。通过对人体处于疾患状态中药物作用的评估，人们发现其有新的应用价值。噻嗪类利尿剂及β-阻滞剂的抗高血压作用在动物检测试验中并没有发现，只是在这些药物投放市场并被实际应用后，其上述作用才被发现.
3. Experimental pharmacology
这些研究将确定该药在模型状态下是否具有预期的作用。模型的选择要尽可能考虑其为人体功效提供可信的诠释。 1细胞培养或细菌培养
2部分提纯的酶或亚细胞间粒子
3离体组织 4灌注器管
5从老鼠到灵长类动物的所有完整的动物
实验药理学的目的是确定对治疗有用的药理活性，并用已建立起来的模型和已知的药作用来作为特征。
在研究药物对酶或受体的特异性效用时，可选择相对简单的、较为独立的系统或组织施药。 如果研究对象为特征不明显的主观行为，特别是涉及到行为效果时，则有必在意识健全的动物身上进行实验。
4. Toxicological assessment
与药物功效的药理学实验类似，其用药的急慢性毒副作用须被确定。只要LD50（导致50%实验动物死亡的剂量）未接近ED50（引起50%实验动物最大药理学反应的剂量），急性毒副作用便不甚重要。
慢性毒性测试与临床应用关系更为密切，需按下列规则进行：
1给药途径、用量范围、用药次数和血浆水平应该与可能的临床适应症相适应。有可能 的话，应设法测定血浆浓度，确定代谢模式。
2至少应检测两种动物，通常为狗和鼠。有可能的话，其中一种动物的代谢情况应 与人相似。
3治疗期限应与用于人类和具有相关预期寿命的动物的可能治疗期限相一致。通常毒性研究所花时间为四周至一年。
4应不断地进行血液学测定和生化测定。对实验组中的死亡对象的所有组织都要进行组织学检查。应设定同胎仔的非治疗用对照组以便比较
药理学范畴（全文翻译）
总体来说，药理学包括药物的以下诸方面内容：历史背景、来源、理化特性、合成、生化生理作用、活性机制、吸收、分布、生物转化和排泄以及治疗作用和其它作用。由于药物被一般性定义为影响生命过程的化学物质，故而药理学范畴显然是极其广泛的。
然而，就医生和医学生而言，药理学范畴并没有上述定义那么广泛。临床医生的主要兴趣在于药物对人类疾病的预防、诊断及治疗，或是在避孕方面所起的作用。他对这些药物的药理学研究合理地局限于某些方面，只要能为其合理的临床用药提供理论依据就行。其次，医生与某些化学物质亦有联系，这些物质虽不用作治疗，但通常与家庭中毒、工业中毒以及环境污染有关。他们对于这些物质的研究仅限于一般性了解对这些毒性物质和污染物的预防、诊断和治疗。最后，所有的医生参与承担责任来
帮助解决药物滥用产生的持续的社会问题。
从医学生和从业医师的特别需求和兴趣的角度来看，只要对其主要学科领域稍加研究就可知晓什么才是药理学学习的最佳途径。以前，医师必须拥有广泛的植物学方面的知识，因为他得挑选适当的植物，且将其制备成简单的草药。然而，现在的药物已很少取自于天然植物，而且更为重要的是大多数天然药物已被高度提纯且与合成的化学药物无甚区别，所以，临床医生对生药学的兴趣也相应减弱。尽管如此，科学兴趣应该激励临床医生对药物的来源作一些了解，这方面的知识往往证明不但有趣，而且有用。他将会发现了解药物的历史同样具有价值。
药物的制备、合成与销售一度都是医生的职责，但这项工作现在几乎全归药师了。不过临床医生要想开出合理的处方，非得对药物的理化性质及其现有剂型有所了解，非得基本熟悉整个制药过程不可。如若临床医生逃避这方面责任，他肯定用不好药理学及药物知识，从而难以开出适合于每位患者的最佳医疗处方。
药动学涉及到药物的吸收、分布、生物转化及排泄等方面。这些因素再加上剂量便决定了药物在其作用点浓度，进而决定了其作用期限内的药效强度。在对药理学这一重要方面的理解过程中常常运用到许多有关生物化学和酶学方面以及药物化学方面的一些基本原理，而这些原理决定着物质在生物膜之间的主动和被动转移及分布。
对药物的生化生理作用及其活性机制的研究称为药效学。这是一门实验医学，其历史仅可追溯到19世纪后半叶。作为边缘学科，药效学从生理学、生化学、微生物学、免疫学、遗传学和病理学等诸多学科中吸取了大量内容，不仅是科目实体，还包括实验技术。该学科的独到之处主要在于其关注的要点是药物的特征。顾名思义，该科目属动态学科。学生如果仅仅打算死记硬背药物的药效学特性的话，那他将会丧失联系整个临床前期医学为一体的这一最佳机会。例如，利盐排泄剂的活性和效用只有在肾脏生理学和水肿发病机制的基本原理的基础上才能完全理解。换句话说，只有通过对利盐排泄剂的药效学研究，才能最深入地了解肾脏生理学正常和异常两方面情况。
药效学的另一分支是研究药物活性和效用与其化学结构的相互关系。这种“结构-活性”关系是分析药物作用不可或缺的部分，将这种关系应用于现有的治疗药物中往往会促使药品的更新换代。然而，只有当生物活性与化学结构的关联能够为引导出其他药理学信息提供基础时，临床医师才会对此产生兴趣。
临床医师的兴趣主要集中在药物对人体的疗效，这是可以理解的。他们完全有理由对临床药理学给予足够的重视，因为药物的作用往往因种属的明显差异而大相径庭，并可能由于疾病的作用而发生进一步改变。而且有些药物作用—诸如对情绪和行为的作用—只有通过人体才能得以充分研究。不过药物对人体的药理学评价可能因技术、法律及伦理道德方面的原因而受到限制，对药物的选择在一定程度上也必须以它们在动物身上所进行的药理学评价为基础。因此动物药理学和比较药理学方面的知识有助于确定以动物实验为基础的某种新药研制何时才可用于人体。
药物治疗学涉及到如何在疾病防治中使用药物。许多药物以强有力的复制方式促进或抑制着人体的生理生化功能，进而使症状得以缓解或促使病程朝着令人满意的方向转变。而另一方面，化学治疗药物的治病功能并非因为其对人体有大多作用，而是因为它们能杀灭体内的寄生生物。一种药物是否有药效，关键取决于其能否在产生积极作用的同时又可以将其消极影响降至最低。这样，从关注药物疗效的临床医师的观点来看，药物作用的选择性便是其最重要特点之一。药物的活性和疗效与疾病诸方面----生理、生化、微生物、免疫和行为---的联系理所当然地成为药物治疗的基础。药效学便为在临床前期和临床期医学研究的这种联系提供了一个绝好机会。
毒理学是研究药物副作用的药理学分支。它不仅涉及到治疗药物，还涉及到引起家庭、环境或工业中毒的许多其他化学物质。治疗性药物的副作用应被视为整个药理学的一个组成部分。其他化学物质的毒副作用范围太广，临床医师通常只能将注意力放在预防、确认和处理各种药物中毒的基本原则上。
Vitamins ---- Translation
1. Researchers found that the level of vitamin C stored in the body of the victim with a common cold fell drastically and was close to the level of people suffering from scurvy.
2. Minor degrees of vitamin C deficiency are common, though outright scurvy only occur when the diet is markedly deficient in fresh fruits and vegetables.
3. Vitamins are organic compounds that must be supplied in the diet or injected into the body to maintain health.
4. Vitamins produce no energy but play an essential role in the transformation of energy and in the regulation of metabolism.
5. Vitamins are classified/distinguished by the letters of the alphabet, such as vitamins A, C, D, E, K and the B-complex.
6. Vitamins and minerals are found in small amounts and are needed in minute quantities, as compared with the other nutrients.
7. The diseases which develop from the absence of vitamins are known as vitamin deficiency diseases. For example, a lack of vitamin A brings about night blindness; a deficiency of vitamin D results in rickets.
8. Some vitamins are soluble in fats whereas others are soluble in water. They are, therefore, termed fat-soluble and water soluble vitamins respectively.
9. In addition to the general nutrients, another two groups of nutrients, vitamins and inorganic, or mineral, salts are also required by the body.
10. M ost nutrients contain more than one nutrient, but no single food contains all the nutrients in the amounts you need.
食物抗癌
1. O verwhelming statistical evidence shows that smokers are more likely to develop cancer of the lung, throat, and tongue than are non-smokers.
2. F ruits and vegetables are chock-full of a variety of antioxidants which can snuff out oxygen free radicals, substances that are thought to make cells more susceptible to cancer.
3. A well-balanced diet will give your body various nutrients of vitamins, minerals, proteins, starches, and sugars that it needs to operate smoothly.
4. T he risk of lung cancer is directly related to the number of cigarettes smoked each day--the higher the number, the higher the risk.
5. E ven smokers may be protected from developing lung cancer by a daily portion of carrots, spinach or any other vegetables and fruits.
6. S ome studies of animals and humans have suggested that vitamin A offers some protection against lung cancer.
7. F urther studies will be necessary before the link between lung cancer and carotene can be firmly established.
8. A nimal studies show that garlic blocks carcinogens that have been linked to colon and stomach cancer.
9. A diet of more fruits and vegetables will undoubtedly play a major role in reducing cancer incidence as well as the number of deaths caused by the disease.
10.Beta-carotene not only has a direct toxic effect on tumor cells, but also reduces the growth of lung-cancer cells and altered the proteins needed for tumors to grow.
化学与物质----Translation
1. B riefly speaking, a scientist differs from an artist mainly in that a scientist not only interprets the outer world, but also tries to transform it into a better one.
2. S cience begins with necessity, curiosity, and questions about the unexplained phenomena in nature.
3. T he ways in which an element or a compound combines or reacts with other things are its chemical properties.
4. T he chemist is interested in the composition and properties of substances and the transformations they undergo during a chemical reaction.
5. I t is very easy to fall into the habit of taking some painkiller when there is any slight pain.
6. T he delicate operations performed by surgeons today would not be possible without anesthetics.
7. T oday it is generally recognised that the human body is a chemical factory in which countless complex chemical and physical
changes are constantly taking place.
8. T he substance salt is composed of the metal sodium and the corrosive gas chlorine, but its chemical properties are quite different from those of sodium and chlorine.
9. C hemotherapy is the treatment of disease by the administration of chemical substances which kill or prevent the growth of pathogenic organisms within the body.
10.Substances that lessen pain but do not affect other sensations are called pain relieving drugs.
麻醉药 Translation
1. It is not many years since a man who had to have an operation felt all its pain.
2. I t is attributable to the discovery of anesthetics that surgeons can now perform all kinds of operations without causing pain.
3. S pinal anesthesia produces excellent anesthesia and relaxation for the performance of many operations on the lower parts of the body.
4. T he exact mechanism in which the general anesthetic drugs exert their effect on the brain is still unknown, although many theories have been proposed.
5. T he introduction of anesthetics to surgery has made possible much more delicate and lengthy operations, thus greatly extending the field of surgery.
6. N arcotics are applied to those drugs which are sedative in their action upon the body but which also produce insensibility to pain.
7. C ontrary to what one might think, it’s only 50 years or so since penicillin, the antibiotic once regarded as the wonder drug, came into being.
8. S cientists point out that since the sedative action of a drug results from its effect on the nerves, it must possess solubility in the fluids of the body which surround the nerves.
9. A n anesthetic must be volatile if it is to be administered through oral inhalation, while those which can be administered through the rectum or injected into the spine do not have to be volatile.
10. In spite of the danger of a patient’s contracting pneumonia after the use of ether as an anesthetic, ether is still widely employed because the anesthesia it produces is one of deep relaxation.
绿色药房-草药Translation
1. T he plant kingdom was once man’s only pharmacy. Yet when you enter a modern chemist’s shop today, you can hardly find a sign of the use of plants in medicine.
2. T oday the number of plants used in medicine has decreased, but hidden away in many pills, capsules, and medicine bottles are the active chemicals originally found in the plant kingdom.
3. S ome chemicals which plants make may be poisonous, others may be chemicals that are extremely valuable to us as medicines.
4. D uring the many thousands of years that man has been on the earth, he has been trying out various plants that grew around him.
5. T here has existed for many years mistrust, suspicion or hostility between the orthodox and the herbal practitioner which threatens the possibility of a good working relationship.
6. W hen one considers the therapeutic impact of quinine, it is evident how great is the debt of medicine to plant-derived drugs.
7. H owever, the past few decades have witnessed an obvious diminution in the number of plant-derived drugs introduced into medicine.
8. T he legacy of traditional Chinese medicine is a treasure house with an inexhaustible supply of new potential drugs which is to be explored with an introduction of new approaches.
9. H ad pharmacological approaches not been introduced into the investigation of Vinca rosea, the discovery of vincalcukoblastine would have been postponed by many years.
10.Western practitioners find it difficult to believe that someone who knows nothing of a disease mechanism could still be capable of curing it.
Natural Products
1. One of the oldest of human activities is the study of plants and animals, particularly as sources of food.
2.From the earliest times man had to distinguish between those plants which were poisonous and those which were not and there gradually developed a knowledge of natural drugs.
3. As late as the beginning of the present century pharmacognosy had developed mainly on the botanical side, being particularly concerned with the description and identification of drugs.
4.Undoubtedly the plant kingdom still holds many species of plants containing substances of medical value which have yet to be discovered.
5. As a result of modern isolation and pharmacological testing procedures, new plant drugs usually find their way into medicine as purified substances.
6. Many of the botanical, chemical and physical techniques employed in pharmacognosy are also applicable to the analysis of other commodities, such as foods, spices and cosmetics.
7. While pharmacognosy has been generally studied for practical purposes and may thus be called an applied science it has played an important role in the development of the pure sciences.
8. Recent phytochemical examination of plants which have a suitable history of use in folklore for the treatment of cancer has, indeed, often resulted in the isolation of principles with antitumour activity.
9. The growth of knowledge of biochemistry and physiology, which led to the concept of the chemical control of biological processes, has been of particular importance for pharmacology.
10. Primitive man depended on preventive use of nature’s stock of plants and herbs to avoid disease and to maintain health and vigor. 有机化学 Translation
1. The remarkable advances made in modern medicine would not have been possible without the aid of chemistry.
2. Since the body is essentially a chemical machine, a knowledge of the chemistry of bodily functions seems essential to the physician.
3. The production of food by plants and animals involves the rearrangement of atoms in molecules.
4. Fortunately, few kinds of work seem to urge people on to success more effectively than does the pursuit of chemistry.
5. So far the motive behind the search for synthetics has been a wish to produce better things for less money, and for more people.
6. Isolation of increasing numbers of purified materials from living forms and recognition of the fact that all contained carbon gave birth to organic chemistry.
7. When coal is burned in a furnace it combines with oxygen to give carbon dioxide, a new substance with different composition and properties from coal and oxygen.
8. Many specific chemical reactions are important because of the energy which they use or supply.
9. In the study of organic chemistry, students are expected to use familiar symbols which are constructed into two- or three-dimensional molecular formulas.
10.From the food we eat, the clothes we wear to the buildings we live in, all have been fashioned to a considerable extent by organic chemistry.
新药研制 1 Translation
1. F ormerly, drugs were extracted from natural plants and animal sources, and therapeutic use was based on traditional experience.
2. D rug development strategies involve serendipity, molecular roulette, programmed basic research with synthesis of specific chemical, etc..
3. T hough it’s the most satisfying in the development of new drugs, the approach is expensive and there is no guarantee of success.
4. W hen a drug is used by millions, there are certain to be adverse reactions even though the risk to any individual is small.
5. M ost drugs have a safe upper limit of dosage; beyond this toxic effects may be expected to occur.
6. P enicillin, one of the most powerful killers of bacteria was discovered quite by accident by Alexander Fleming.
7. P harmacological experiment on a new drug determines whether the drug has the desired profile of action in model system.
8. T he increase in knowledge of biochemical mechanisms results in a more rational approach to the development of new drugs.
9. E xtensive formal toxicological tests are required before a new drug can be used on patients.
10.Chemists and biologists have now attached great importance to such fields of research as molecular biology and biochemical
pharmacology.
新药研制 2 Translation
1. T he rationale for the development of new drugs should be provide better drugs; better in the sense of being either more effective, safer or cheaper.
2. T he representative of the pharmaceutical manufacturer has been specially trained to promote his particular new product.
3. O nly after animal studies have proved efficacy can clinical evaluation of new drugs be undertaken.
4. N ew drug evaluation in man can be divided into four phases each of which should be conducted under strict supervision.
5. A dose-ranging study should only be performed on volunteers who are informed about the implications of the tests, and who give their consent freely.
6. D ose-ranging studies should only be performed under medical supervision, as there exist some possible risks during the test.
7. L arge scale clinical trials in Phase 3 are to establish new drug’s profile of action and frequency of adverse effects.
8. T he expensive cost in drug development is borne by the pharmaceutical manufacturer, which justifiably expects to recoup it when the product is finally marketed.
9. I nformation about the new drug published in well-established journals is more reliable than that offered by the medical representative whose livelihood depends on the ability to promote the product.
10.Heavy investment in promotion has not simply led to the use of undistinguished new drugs, but to a higher cost of the drugs as well.
药理学范畴 Translation
1. T he science of the effects of drugs on the body is called pharmacology, and the scientists who study it are pharmacologists.
2. P harmacology is not a science that can be studied on its own, but that closely related to other branches of science.
3. P harmacologists should not only understand the normal processes that take place in the body, but know how the functions of the body are affected by disease.
4. P roperly used, drugs are great blessing to mankind; improperly used, they could destroy the race.
5. D uring the first part of the twentieth century there have been enormous strides in the field of pharmacology.
6. M an continues to strive, not only for a longer life span, but for a healthier one as well.
7. W ith the frequent use of more than one therapeutic agent by a patient, particularly the elderly, drug interactions that result in toxicity are likely events.
8. T he clinician is interested primarily in drugs that are useful in the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of human diseases.
9. M ost of the natural drugs are now highly purified and differ little from synthetic chemicals, the interests of the clinician in pharmacognosy are correspondingly decreased.
10.As a border science, pharmacodynamics borrows freely from both the theories and experimental techniques of physiology, biochemistry, immunology, pathology, etc..
良药滥用-----Translation
1. A lthough the development of antibiotics has been of incalculable benefit to mankind, it has also given rise to serious complications.
2. T he widespread use of antibiotics has resulted in the natural evolution of strains of disease germs which are resistant to such medications.
3. A new multidrug-resistant tuberculosis, now prevalent in the world, causes serious infections that may not respond to chemotherapy.
4. S ome antibiotics are effective against a large range of microorganisms, they are, therefore, known as broad-spectrum antibiotics.
5. S ome drugs may not cause physical dependence, or addiction, but many persons do become habituated to their use.
6. D rug abuse is thought of as the misuse of drugs potentially harmful to the individual user or to society.
7. M any persons, believing that antibiotics can cure any disease, press their doctors for a dose of penicillin for such virus ailment as influenza.
8. A ddiction is the body’s continued need for drugs because of their physiological effects after they are first taken.
9. I n comparison, the inadequacies and potential dangers of antibiotics are much less widely known.
10.Antibiotics are used so carelessly around the world that they are creating a new health threat to mankind.
抗癌的食物（全文翻译）
现在饮食开始被考虑作为抵抗癌症的主要武器。国际癌症协会估计所有的癌症中有三分之一是与饮食有关，并且最近的研究指出吃何种物质可能会意味着减少患癌的风险。
癌症的发展是需要超过一定的时间的，那就意味着你已经有数十年阻碍或者促进它的发展。研究人员发现随着癌症的发展你所吃的食物会从不同的阶段起到阻碍作用。例如，某些食物可能阻碍化学药物而导致癌症。抗氧化剂，在维他命和矿物中被发现，能消灭氧原子的自由基团，某些能够修复细胞损伤的物质通过这个途径使细胞易感从而导致癌症从而消亡。并且在一些环境中含麦麸的食物可以收缩癌症前期的细胞。
一个由具有国际水准的并且来自17个不同国家的研究组织的评论指出那些经常使用水果和蔬菜的人与同期食用较少的人相比患癌症的风险指数仅有一半。那些癌症发生的部位包括：肺，结肠，胸部，宫颈，食道，口腔，胃，膀胱，胰腺和卵巢。事实上，一些研究建议应该多食水果和蔬菜这样能降低患肺癌的风险甚至是吸烟者。一位美国疾病预防控制中心的流行病学家Tim Byers说道：“这是难以理解的一种普通的水果或者蔬菜能够如此有效的抵抗癌症，例如香烟的烟气”。
在一个众多研究存在于水果蔬菜中抗氧化剂的研究中，发现B-胡萝卜素能够保护机体并且抵抗癌症，并且存在于深绿色，黄色，橙色的蔬菜中像：胡萝卜，地瓜和菠菜。水果中含量较高的有杏，哈密瓜。哈弗大学试管研究表明，B-胡萝卜素对摄取有害的肿瘤细胞产生直接的毒性作用。它能减少肺癌细胞的增值以及改变肿瘤细胞增值所需的蛋白质。
研究显示B-胡萝卜素能够改变人体中的视黄酸，一种在临床实验中对抗确切癌症的物质。
这里有一些含有对抗癌症的化学物质的食物：西红柿 西红柿中含有的一种能够减少患癌症风险的成分就是番茄红素，是一种使西红柿变红的色素。番茄红素，一种抗氧化剂，也发现存在于西瓜和杏中，能够阻止诱发癌症的氧原子自由基团。
Hopkins 大学的研究者约翰指出血液中番茄红素含量低于患胰腺癌的风险是有关联的。于正常的个体相比患胰腺癌的患者番茄红素的含量较低。那些血液中番茄红素含量低的人患胰腺癌的风险是那些血液中番茄红素含量正常的人的五倍。
番茄红素存在于西红柿产品中，包括酱油和番茄酱。 绿色蔬菜：近期一个意大利的研究表明黑绿色叶类的蔬菜可以降低患某些癌症的风险。菠菜，西兰花，甘兰，黑绿色的油麦菜都富含抗氧化剂，叶酸和叶黄素。一则非常好的经验就是：深色蔬菜含有丰富的抗氧化剂。
柑橘类水果：一位来自国际癌症协会的毒理学家Herbert Pierson说道要尽可能
的多食用柑橘，葡萄柚，黄柠和青柠，他称柑橘类的水果为癌症包因为它拥有各种天然物质并且能够在动物身上独立存在的中立化学类的类胡萝卜素（像类胡萝卜素 黄铜等其他）。
柑橘类水果尤其能够降低患胰腺癌的风险。一个在瑞典的研究发现，与那些一周吃一次柑橘类水果的人相比几乎每天食用的人可将风险从三分之二降低至一半。
十字花科类的蔬菜：十字花科的蔬菜 像卷心菜，菜花，布鲁塞尔豆芽，西
兰花，甘兰，荠菜和红萝卜，可能会降低乳腺癌的风险。事实上，艾普利协会在奥哈马市内布拉斯加州大学进行的研究表明给动物喂食卷心菜和绿色植物（十字花科植物），结合低脂饮食，可以减少乳腺癌的发病率。生食或者轻微烹饪十字花科蔬菜，久煮可能会破坏其中用来对抗癌症吲哚成分。
十字花科蔬菜也可以阻止胃癌和直肠癌的发生。在美国犹他州的调查显示那些经常使用十字花科蔬菜的人比少食的人患癌症的几率百分之七十。
大豆：大豆被认为至少含有五种抑制癌症的成分。事实上，其中一种化学成分与能够治疗雌性激素乳腺癌且现在被大量用于临床试验验证是否能够治愈疾病的三苯氧胺相似。在动物实验的研究中，从解剖培养和分离癌细胞的直肠，皮肤中也发现了大豆的成分。
麦麸：麦麸可降低患直肠癌的风险。在纽约康乃尔医学中心进行的研究发现每日使用一央司的谷物麦麸可以在六个月内缩小直肠息肉。一些研究者称，更值得注意的是，这么少量的食物在这么短的时间内起作用，并附图解说明饮食干预也可在癌症发病前出现的警告信号之后起作用。
低脂牛奶：牛奶中的饱和脂肪可能会诱发某些癌症有些成分可能会阻止其发生。在纽约的罗斯维尔癌症协会研究发现，不惊奇的是，那些喝牛奶的人比不喝牛奶的人在患口腔癌，胃癌，结肠癌，直肠癌，肺癌，膀胱癌，乳腺癌和宫颈癌的几率。但研究
发现，那些使用低脂牛奶的人比不喝牛奶的人在患口腔癌，胃癌和直肠癌的几率低。为什么？科学家的猜想是在某些方面的基础物质像钙，维生素b2，维他命A,C,D （也存在于全脂牛奶中但是效应较少）在抗肿瘤媒介方面的作用还不明确。
为了从饮食中获得更多的抗癌成分，国际癌症协会建议每天摄取至少五种水果蔬菜。那就意味着食用半杯量的全熟或者生的水果蔬菜，半杯量的绿叶蔬菜，半生的块状水果，六盎司的果汁或者蔬菜汁。饮食建议是低脂肪低卡路里，高纤维，包括各种营养丰富的食物像水果，蔬菜，谷物，豆角，坚果，如果可以低脂肪的蛋白质也可以。
有机化学（全文翻译）
毫无疑问，从事有机化学学习的学生肯定已彻底掌握了大学一年级的化学知识。也就是说他对原子符号、对简单的化学式已了如指掌；对原子的电子结构以及原子间化学键的形成方式已有足够的认识，可以写出简单分子的结构式： 对固、液、气三态性质已有基本概念；他已了解了化合价数目和分子量是如何确定的；了解了何为离子，如何确定其存在；他已具备了对Le Chatelier 原理所阐明的概念的基本使用；而且他还能以内行的眼光来审视周期表。当然，一年级化学所学的许多细节很可能已被遗忘了，所以，有机化学学生如果对什么拿不准的话，最好还是将一年级课本取出随时备考为妥。学生应努力将本课程所学的新内容和旧知识联系起来，与将要研修的其他课程联系起来，例如物理化学，生物化学或工业化学等。
但是，学生将接触到大量新内容。其中部分将由旧内容以新方式组合而成，例如，用我们所熟悉的符号构成二维或三维分子结构式；其余的则是由新引进符号和特定语言所描述的新概念和新思想。因此，学生一定要做好强记的思想准备。既然这是掌握本课程一些内容的唯一便捷途径，学生不妨老老实实地记忆，并熟悉这种学习方法。不过我们应看到该记忆量绝不大于学习外语或比较解剖学所需的记忆量。医学预科生一般都能通过有机化学测试，甚至还会喜欢上该学科。
经验表明，有机化学课程第一学期前半段最为关键。如果学生学好了这部分内容，其余课程就相对容易了。因为有机化学的基本概念有着紧密的内在联系。教程的初始部分至少在整个学习过程中都被不知不觉地应用着，而更多场合则是被直接应用。教程通过内容的不断丰富而进一步深化；它不像旅行那样道路只走一趟。教程初始部分的许多内容看似简单，所以学生很容易将其一带而过。
理科的目的之一便是通过对符号和概念的操作来了解感性世界。 理科中有机化学这一分支, 不仅清楚阐明了符号和概念的操作方法。还从各方面展示了人们在对自然现象理解过程中的收获。 几乎从教程一开始，学生便可欣赏到该学科的展开方式。化学研究的是物质的结构和性质，以及可能导致结构和性质发生变化的化学反应。有机化学研究的是含有碳元素的那些物质。根据该定义，有些亦被称作有机物的化合物已在一年级的化学中学过。例如碳酸盐、醋酸盐和氰化物，当然还有二氧化碳。其中有些化合物，例如碳酸钙和氰化钾，很容易被视为无机物，因为它们的化学性质与许多无机物是何其相似，而且像大理石这样的物质毕竟归属于矿物质。然而煤和石油也是矿物质，但却无人对其是有机物提出异议. 况且，许多无机物都表现出与有机物类似的特性，所以，有机化学和无机化学的区分，不能以化学反应的相似度为准，而完全取决于反应是否有碳元素的存在。在此必须指出，像碳酸盐、亚铁氰化物和铁氰化物、硫氰酸盐等诸类化合物在一年级化学中已有涉猎，这里不再赘述 。
有机化学的重要性。上世纪在有机化学方面的飞速发展为其在工业的实际应用展示了广阔的前景。这些应用已经在数不胜数的领域丰富了我们的生活。有机技术的进展使得社会的方方面面都受到影响---我们吃的食物、穿的衣服、建造的房屋、进行战争的方式、抵御疾病的手段---所有这一切都被有机化学推向了一个更高层面。许多珍贵的天然制品经由化学手段稍作改良，其作用便可进一步提高；更有其他物品从大自然获取十分不易，但却可通过化学手段大量合成，而且价格低廉。近年来，人们已研制出结构和天然物质非常相似的合成物质，但品质更佳、用途更广、优势独特。此外，人类还利用诸如煤、水、空气、石油、天然气和普通农作物等丰富原材料生产出一些早已从大自然销声匿迹的新物质来。 所有这些成就真可谓层出不穷，不胜枚举，即是略数一二也难以周全。
新药研制1（全文翻译）
药物研制旨在生产出在疗效上优于现存药品，且副作用发生率减少、程度降低的新型治疗药物。
1 Evolution of a new Drug
新药研制涉及到多学科研究人员多年的共同研究. 以前，药物是由天然植物和动物体提取的，其治疗作用全凭经验和传统做法来确定。在过去的80年中，通过化学合成，研制出大量新药。随着遗传工程和单克隆抗体的发展，必将研制出更多新药。
合成技术已研制出高纯度药物。这不仅提高了治疗的专一性，有时还提高了疗效，减少了毒副作用。遗憾的是，新药研发的费用太高，并且只有少数研发的新药被实际推上市场。
在研制出的新型化学制品中，有些会产生意想不到的毒副作用。 因此大多数政府都设有药品发行的调节机构，例如：英国的药品安全委员会和美国的食品药品管理局。这些机构负责管理新药的临床研究和审批发行事宜。尽管其作用是保护公众利益，但
申报新药审批所必须遵循的诸多法律手续却大大增加了研制的成本和时间。
有迹象显示，全新药物投入使用的速率正在下降。这一现象或许反映了生产成本过高，或者是新药数量不足或研制能力下降，具体情况尚不清楚。
2. Drug development strategies
历年来在新药研制中采用的几种方法都有所成就，但没有哪种方法是长盛不衰的。
Serendipity, luck and intuition 意外发现、运气和直觉
这种方法近年已较少使用了。弗莱明发现青霉素属于这一类别。
Molecular roulette
对新结构及药理学筛选的随机化学合成。此法耗费巨大，且有赖于得到很难得到的人类疾病的活体标本或试管标本
Minor structural changes in existing agents现有化合物结构修饰
此法偶尔可产生功效更高的化合物，但罕有可能产生药物学筛选和临床实践中被检测出具有全新功效的药物。
Programmed basic research with synthesis of specific chemical对特定化学物质的合成而制定的基础研究
从研究的角度看，这一方法最令人满意。至今已有骄人战绩，例如：治疗帕金森神经功能障碍所用的左旋多巴及多巴胺；治疗心绞痛的β-肾上腺素受体阻滞剂；消化性溃疡使用的组胺拮抗药；用于高血压的转换酶抑制剂。不过，此法耗费巨大，且前景莫测。 Clinical observation of drug action in Practice 使用中药物作用的临床观察
这是药物评估的传统方法。通过对人体处于疾患状态中药物作用的评估，人们发现其有新的应用价值。噻嗪类利尿剂及β-阻滞剂的抗高血压作用在动物检测试验中并没有发现，只是在这些药物投放市场并被实际应用后，其上述作用才被发现.
3. Experimental pharmacology
这些研究将确定该药在模型状态下是否具有预期的作用。模型的选择要尽可能考虑其为人体功效提供可信的诠释。 1细胞培养或细菌培养
2部分提纯的酶或亚细胞间粒子
3离体组织 4灌注器管
5从老鼠到灵长类动物的所有完整的动物
实验药理学的目的是确定对治疗有用的药理活性，并用已建立起来的模型和已知的药作用来作为特征。
在研究药物对酶或受体的特异性效用时，可选择相对简单的、较为独立的系统或组织施药。 如果研究对象为特征不明显的主观行为，特别是涉及到行为效果时，则有必在意识健全的动物身上进行实验。
4. Toxicological assessment
与药物功效的药理学实验类似，其用药的急慢性毒副作用须被确定。只要LD50（导致50%实验动物死亡的剂量）未接近ED50（引起50%实验动物最大药理学反应的剂量），急性毒副作用便不甚重要。
慢性毒性测试与临床应用关系更为密切，需按下列规则进行：
1给药途径、用量范围、用药次数和血浆水平应该与可能的临床适应症相适应。有可能 的话，应设法测定血浆浓度，确定代谢模式。
2至少应检测两种动物，通常为狗和鼠。有可能的话，其中一种动物的代谢情况应 与人相似。
3治疗期限应与用于人类和具有相关预期寿命的动物的可能治疗期限相一致。通常毒性研究所花时间为四周至一年。
4应不断地进行血液学测定和生化测定。对实验组中的死亡对象的所有组织都要进行组织学检查。应设定同胎仔的非治疗用对照组以便比较
药理学范畴（全文翻译）
总体来说，药理学包括药物的以下诸方面内容：历史背景、来源、理化特性、合成、生化生理作用、活性机制、吸收、分布、生物转化和排泄以及治疗作用和其它作用。由于药物被一般性定义为影响生命过程的化学物质，故而药理学范畴显然是极其广泛的。
然而，就医生和医学生而言，药理学范畴并没有上述定义那么广泛。临床医生的主要兴趣在于药物对人类疾病的预防、诊断及治疗，或是在避孕方面所起的作用。他对这些药物的药理学研究合理地局限于某些方面，只要能为其合理的临床用药提供理论依据就行。其次，医生与某些化学物质亦有联系，这些物质虽不用作治疗，但通常与家庭中毒、工业中毒以及环境污染有关。他们对于这些物质的研究仅限于一般性了解对这些毒性物质和污染物的预防、诊断和治疗。最后，所有的医生参与承担责任来
帮助解决药物滥用产生的持续的社会问题。
从医学生和从业医师的特别需求和兴趣的角度来看，只要对其主要学科领域稍加研究就可知晓什么才是药理学学习的最佳途径。以前，医师必须拥有广泛的植物学方面的知识，因为他得挑选适当的植物，且将其制备成简单的草药。然而，现在的药物已很少取自于天然植物，而且更为重要的是大多数天然药物已被高度提纯且与合成的化学药物无甚区别，所以，临床医生对生药学的兴趣也相应减弱。尽管如此，科学兴趣应该激励临床医生对药物的来源作一些了解，这方面的知识往往证明不但有趣，而且有用。他将会发现了解药物的历史同样具有价值。
药物的制备、合成与销售一度都是医生的职责，但这项工作现在几乎全归药师了。不过临床医生要想开出合理的处方，非得对药物的理化性质及其现有剂型有所了解，非得基本熟悉整个制药过程不可。如若临床医生逃避这方面责任，他肯定用不好药理学及药物知识，从而难以开出适合于每位患者的最佳医疗处方。
药动学涉及到药物的吸收、分布、生物转化及排泄等方面。这些因素再加上剂量便决定了药物在其作用点浓度，进而决定了其作用期限内的药效强度。在对药理学这一重要方面的理解过程中常常运用到许多有关生物化学和酶学方面以及药物化学方面的一些基本原理，而这些原理决定着物质在生物膜之间的主动和被动转移及分布。
对药物的生化生理作用及其活性机制的研究称为药效学。这是一门实验医学，其历史仅可追溯到19世纪后半叶。作为边缘学科，药效学从生理学、生化学、微生物学、免疫学、遗传学和病理学等诸多学科中吸取了大量内容，不仅是科目实体，还包括实验技术。该学科的独到之处主要在于其关注的要点是药物的特征。顾名思义，该科目属动态学科。学生如果仅仅打算死记硬背药物的药效学特性的话，那他将会丧失联系整个临床前期医学为一体的这一最佳机会。例如，利盐排泄剂的活性和效用只有在肾脏生理学和水肿发病机制的基本原理的基础上才能完全理解。换句话说，只有通过对利盐排泄剂的药效学研究，才能最深入地了解肾脏生理学正常和异常两方面情况。
药效学的另一分支是研究药物活性和效用与其化学结构的相互关系。这种“结构-活性”关系是分析药物作用不可或缺的部分，将这种关系应用于现有的治疗药物中往往会促使药品的更新换代。然而，只有当生物活性与化学结构的关联能够为引导出其他药理学信息提供基础时，临床医师才会对此产生兴趣。
临床医师的兴趣主要集中在药物对人体的疗效，这是可以理解的。他们完全有理由对临床药理学给予足够的重视，因为药物的作用往往因种属的明显差异而大相径庭，并可能由于疾病的作用而发生进一步改变。而且有些药物作用—诸如对情绪和行为的作用—只有通过人体才能得以充分研究。不过药物对人体的药理学评价可能因技术、法律及伦理道德方面的原因而受到限制，对药物的选择在一定程度上也必须以它们在动物身上所进行的药理学评价为基础。因此动物药理学和比较药理学方面的知识有助于确定以动物实验为基础的某种新药研制何时才可用于人体。
药物治疗学涉及到如何在疾病防治中使用药物。许多药物以强有力的复制方式促进或抑制着人体的生理生化功能，进而使症状得以缓解或促使病程朝着令人满意的方向转变。而另一方面，化学治疗药物的治病功能并非因为其对人体有大多作用，而是因为它们能杀灭体内的寄生生物。一种药物是否有药效，关键取决于其能否在产生积极作用的同时又可以将其消极影响降至最低。这样，从关注药物疗效的临床医师的观点来看，药物作用的选择性便是其最重要特点之一。药物的活性和疗效与疾病诸方面----生理、生化、微生物、免疫和行为---的联系理所当然地成为药物治疗的基础。药效学便为在临床前期和临床期医学研究的这种联系提供了一个绝好机会。
毒理学是研究药物副作用的药理学分支。它不仅涉及到治疗药物，还涉及到引起家庭、环境或工业中毒的许多其他化学物质。治疗性药物的副作用应被视为整个药理学的一个组成部分。其他化学物质的毒副作用范围太广，临床医师通常只能将注意力放在预防、确认和处理各种药物中毒的基本原则上。