一、 段落分析
Concept-defining
(一) Content 内容（from paragraph level）
1 Topic 话题（特点general笼统）
2 Aspect (supporting sentence)
from material to spiritual aspects从物质到精神
from physical to psychological aspects从身体到心理
from idea/mentality to behavior从思想到行为
from technology to society
from individual to social aspects从个体到社会
from oneself to others从自身到他人
from direct to indirect aspects从直接到间接
from physical environment to economic and social structure从地理环境到社会经济结构 3 Perspective (point of view)角度+ Key words
=thesis 论点+evidence论据
=theme主题（main idea）+aspects方面
4 Form/Function形式（passage level）
Structure: the organization of the whole article
Introduction (what)
Body (why)
Conclusion (how)
(二) Paragraph development
1 Skill/Pattern；Fact/Detail
Statistics统计
Examples例证
Statements阐述
Quotation引言
2 Method针对所选用的skill的方法
1) topic order
2) causal order = cause and effect
3) spatial order = space order
4) chronological order = time order
5) problem and solution
6) means and ends
7) process and result
8) classification
9) hierarchical structure 分层次、等级的(from least to most)
10) antithesis对偶、排比
11) progression递进(a gradual process of change or developing over period of time)
12) comparison (相似) and contrast(差异) 对比
3 Logic relationship (from passage level) (what, why, how)
1)Cause and effect因果关系=why & how
2)Means and ends = process and purpose = how手段和目的；过程和目的
3)Topic/idea and reason (introduction)= what & why
4)Problem and solution = what & how
5)Example = how
(三) Developing Paragraph/Body(正文/主体)
1 Unity (一致性)—topic sentence切题，与开篇提出的论点相关
2 Development (发展性)—supporting sentences no more than 5 aspects论据是否充分 Common Methods of Development
1) exemplification例证
2) facts事实
3) citation引证
4) comparison and contrast比较与对比
5) analysis分析
6) classification分类
3 Coherence (连贯性):主要指段落中的句子与句子之间在逻辑上和结构上的相互连贯—条理清楚、层次分明、衔接自然
1)transitions/signposts过渡词/路标词
2)from the most important to the least important or vice verse由重到轻，反之亦然
3)general principle by classification:总原则（分类）
from material to spiritual aspects从物质到精神
from physical to psychological aspects从身体到心理
from individual to social aspects从个体到社会
from oneself to others从自身到他人
from direct to indirect aspects从直接到间接
from physical environment to economic and social structure从地理环境到社会经济结构
第一课的第三段：
Our second major discovery was that the Information Marketplace will dramatically affect people and organizations on a wide scale. Besides its many uses in commerce, office work, and manufacturing, it will also improve health care, provide new ways to shop, enable professional and social encounters across the globe, and generally permeate the thousands of things we do in the course of our daily lives. It will help us pursue old and new pleasures, and it will encourage new art forms, which may be criticized but will move art forward, as new tools have always done. It will also improve education and training, first in specific and established ways and later through breakthroughs that are confidently awaited. Human organizations from tiny companies to entire
第一课的第十二段：
The wise eye will also see that the Information Marketplace is much influential than its parts—the interfaces, middleware and pipes that make up the three-story building on which we stand. Once they are integrated, they present a much greater power—the power to prevent an asthmatic from dying in a remote town in Alaska, to enable an unemployed bank loan officer to find and succeed at a new form of work, to allow a husband and wife to revel in the accomplishments of a distant daughter while also providing emotional and financial support. These powers are far greater than
第八课的第一段：
Countless cultures around the world have disappeared, along with their mythologies. In Mesoamerica, dozens of ornate lie mute, as do an untold number of in Peru, in Wales, in Cambodia, and magnificent
第八课的第四段：
It is likely that changes in the forest occurred over decades and would have been difficult to detect immediately.“This year we cleared those woods over there, but trees are starting to grow back again over here.” Furthermore,
any islander who issued a against the oncoming disaster would have been silenced by the ruling class. Chiefs, priests, and stone carvers all depended on the to
第八课的第六段：
Humanity may not act in time to prevent the decimation of the rain forests, fossil fuels, arable land, and fisheries. In only 40 years, Ethiopia’s forest cover shrank from 30% to 1%. During the same time period, the rest of the world lost half of its rain forests. Powerful decision-making groups ignore those who sound an alarm; their political, economic, and religious agendas fail to address the
第八课的第八段：
If we are going to avoid the fate of the Easter Islanders, we must change the myths that are leading us toward extinction and find inspiring visions of a plausible and appealing future. The old myths have collapsed, but no new ones have emerged to fill the vacuum. For transformation to occur, human beings must actively that goes to the heart of mythmaking. If we are each a cell in what Peter Russell calls “The Global Brain,” then this is an
第八课的第十二段：
But as the Grand Narrative of Progress came to dominate other values and views, it cast a malignant shadow.overcrowded highways, air pollution, and deforestation in its wake. increased crop production but also increased the growth of algae in lakes and canals. The discovery of powerful ——first greeted with enthusiasm and a Nobel Prize——was followed by the
but led to storage problems, life-threatening contamination, and at least one accident with worldwide repercussions. foul once-pristine lands. Although Western housing, clothing, and religion were brought to aboriginal people, and the rate of infectious disease went down, the rate of
第八课的第二十五段：
The third principle is to identify real-life situations in which antagonists can find common ground. With a recognition of the limitations of linguistic exchange, postmodernists urge that groups “press beyond dialogue.” For example, athletes and musicians generate smooth and effective teams or musical groups. Business executives and scientists
二、 文章结构分析
第八课1-4段
Countless cultures around the world have disappeared, along with their mythologies. In Mesoamerica, dozens of ornate Mayan temples lie mute, as do an untold number of Incan monuments in Peru, Celtic cairns in Wales, Khmer statues in Cambodia, and magnificent ziggurat-like structures in central Africa.
Easter Island, celebrated for the giant statues left by its vanished civilization, is unique in archaeology because of its isolation from its neighbors. Current archaeological evidence indicates that some 1,600 years ago the island’s first settlers, explorers from Polynesia, found themselves in a pristine paradise with subtropical forests, dozens of wild bird species, and no predators. They multiplied and prospered, distributing resources in a manner that suggests a sophisticated economy and complex political system. Rival clans erected ever-larger statues on platforms, emulating the stone carvings of their Polynesian forebears, trying to surpass each other with displays of power and wealth.
Eventually, as the island’s population grew to 20,000 people, the forests were cut more rapidly than they regenerated. Trees were transformed into fuel, canoes, and houses, as well as rollers and ropes to transport the gigantic stone heads. In time, the absence of wood for sea going canoes reduced the fish catches, while erosion and deforestation diminished crop yields. The growing populace consumed the local bird and animal populations. When the island could no longer feed its human population, the political and religious oligarchy that had directed and distributed the local resources began to languish. Many archaeologists believe the ruling class was overthrown by warriors. In the ensuing disorder, clan fought clan fought clan, toppling and desecrating each other’s statues. When the Europeans arrived on Easter Sunday, 1772, the once-fertile island was barren and desolate. Its remaining inhabitants, only a fraction of the numbers a few generations earlier, were heirs to a once-greater society that had degenerated into violence, starvation, and cannibalism.
It is likely that changes in the forest occurred over decades and would have been difficult to detect immediately. An islander might easily have missed the long-term trend, thinking: “This year we cleared those woods over there, but trees are starting to grow back again over here.” Furthermore, any islander who issued a warning against the oncoming disaster would have been silenced by the ruling class. Chiefs, priests, and stone carvers all depended on the status quo to retain their positions and privileges.
附：
武 汉 大 学
博士研究生英语试题
Part I Documental Analysis 20%
Attention: Analyze the following paragraph according to the
But as the Grand Narrative of Progress came to dominate other values and views, it cast a malignant shadow. The invention of the automobile was the quintessence of progress, but it left overcrowded highways, air pollution, and deforestation in its wake. Fertilizers increased crop production but also increased the growth of algae in lakes and canals. The discovery of powerful insecticides--first greeted with enthusiasm and a Nobel Prize--was followed by the unintentional poisoning of fish, birds, and animals. Nuclear power plants increased available energy but led to storage problems, life-threatening contamination, and at least one accident with worldwide repercussions. The waste products of technological living began to choke great cities and foul once-pristine lands. Although Western housing, clothing, and religion were brought to aboriginal people, and the rate of infectious disease went down, the rate of alcoholism, drug addiction, suicide, and spouse and child abuse went up.
Part II Article Analysis 15%
Attention: Fill the chart according to the requirements based on your understanding of the
following article.
1. We live in times that are harsh but exciting, where everyone agrees that we are moving to a new level of civilization. Principles, values, ways of life, will no longer be the same; but as yet we are not really ready for these changes; we are faced with inventing the future and also bringing it into operation, progressively; we make experiments and we frequently make mistakes; but we are beginning to know what we want when we talk of justice, freedom and democracy. The scientific and technological community is directly involved in the questions that arise. Following those of our generation, the demands of your generation will continue until these aims have been at least partially achieved.
2. The closeness of scientific problems to political problems is such that scientific workers are not,
far from it, protected from socio-economic vicissitudes. So much so that they sometimes express the same needs as all other workers and join them in this context; but they also call for specific measures. Like everyone else we need freedom but we especially need freedom of expression for our scientific and technological ideas; we need this even if it is only to put them forward for criticism. We don't ask for any particular privilege but we would like the efforts made to be evaluated at their actual worth, in the interests of society.
3. If our federation is so active in working for a statement of the rights and responsibilities of scientific workers, it is because we wish to resolve this problem in a way appropriate to most countries.
4. So you will certainly play an important part in society, even if this is not always readily recognized by society, because scientific and technological knowledge and expertise are the context in which future economic, social and political changes will take place. Whatever you do, you cannot ignore them and, whatever is said, society will not be able to ignore you. You will also have a decisive part to play, and perhaps an even more difficult one, in the scientific and technological community itself. The whole extension of this community and its interaction with society as a whole leads scientific workers to get involved in all political debates, crises and decisions. You will have to note the essential demands of science as such; it is not simply a matter of protecting society from unacceptable consequences; one must also protect scientific activity from political and financial meddling.
5. It is vital to safeguard the basic honesty of science, the honesty that is basic to its method. Whenever, in the history of science, this honesty has been set aside, the consequences have been serious. I am not speaking merely of the suicide or disgrace of an individual but of the social and economic damage arising from such lapses. There are worse possibilities: at a time when problems are increasingly complex, with ever widening political implications, we need science to be technically dependable and socially credible. In a world of turbulence, science's saving grace is not simply material but lies in its rationality.
Part III Writing 25%
Attention: Write an essay on the following topic with substantial evidence and good reasoning (e.g.
in a linear way) in more than 300 words.
---- On My Class Experience
Part I. Documental Analysis 20%
Topic: ______________________________ ______________________________
Perspective(s): __________________________ __________________________
Method(s): ___________________________ ___________________________
Skill(s): _______________________________ _______________________________
Questions: ____________________________ ____________________________
Part II. Article Analysis 15%
一、 段落分析
Concept-defining
(一) Content 内容（from paragraph level）
1 Topic 话题（特点general笼统）
2 Aspect (supporting sentence)
from material to spiritual aspects从物质到精神
from physical to psychological aspects从身体到心理
from idea/mentality to behavior从思想到行为
from technology to society
from individual to social aspects从个体到社会
from oneself to others从自身到他人
from direct to indirect aspects从直接到间接
from physical environment to economic and social structure从地理环境到社会经济结构 3 Perspective (point of view)角度+ Key words
=thesis 论点+evidence论据
=theme主题（main idea）+aspects方面
4 Form/Function形式（passage level）
Structure: the organization of the whole article
Introduction (what)
Body (why)
Conclusion (how)
(二) Paragraph development
1 Skill/Pattern；Fact/Detail
Statistics统计
Examples例证
Statements阐述
Quotation引言
2 Method针对所选用的skill的方法
1) topic order
2) causal order = cause and effect
3) spatial order = space order
4) chronological order = time order
5) problem and solution
6) means and ends
7) process and result
8) classification
9) hierarchical structure 分层次、等级的(from least to most)
10) antithesis对偶、排比
11) progression递进(a gradual process of change or developing over period of time)
12) comparison (相似) and contrast(差异) 对比
3 Logic relationship (from passage level) (what, why, how)
1)Cause and effect因果关系=why & how
2)Means and ends = process and purpose = how手段和目的；过程和目的
3)Topic/idea and reason (introduction)= what & why
4)Problem and solution = what & how
5)Example = how
(三) Developing Paragraph/Body(正文/主体)
1 Unity (一致性)—topic sentence切题，与开篇提出的论点相关
2 Development (发展性)—supporting sentences no more than 5 aspects论据是否充分 Common Methods of Development
1) exemplification例证
2) facts事实
3) citation引证
4) comparison and contrast比较与对比
5) analysis分析
6) classification分类
3 Coherence (连贯性):主要指段落中的句子与句子之间在逻辑上和结构上的相互连贯—条理清楚、层次分明、衔接自然
1)transitions/signposts过渡词/路标词
2)from the most important to the least important or vice verse由重到轻，反之亦然
3)general principle by classification:总原则（分类）
from material to spiritual aspects从物质到精神
from physical to psychological aspects从身体到心理
from individual to social aspects从个体到社会
from oneself to others从自身到他人
from direct to indirect aspects从直接到间接
from physical environment to economic and social structure从地理环境到社会经济结构
第一课的第三段：
Our second major discovery was that the Information Marketplace will dramatically affect people and organizations on a wide scale. Besides its many uses in commerce, office work, and manufacturing, it will also improve health care, provide new ways to shop, enable professional and social encounters across the globe, and generally permeate the thousands of things we do in the course of our daily lives. It will help us pursue old and new pleasures, and it will encourage new art forms, which may be criticized but will move art forward, as new tools have always done. It will also improve education and training, first in specific and established ways and later through breakthroughs that are confidently awaited. Human organizations from tiny companies to entire
第一课的第十二段：
The wise eye will also see that the Information Marketplace is much influential than its parts—the interfaces, middleware and pipes that make up the three-story building on which we stand. Once they are integrated, they present a much greater power—the power to prevent an asthmatic from dying in a remote town in Alaska, to enable an unemployed bank loan officer to find and succeed at a new form of work, to allow a husband and wife to revel in the accomplishments of a distant daughter while also providing emotional and financial support. These powers are far greater than
第八课的第一段：
Countless cultures around the world have disappeared, along with their mythologies. In Mesoamerica, dozens of ornate lie mute, as do an untold number of in Peru, in Wales, in Cambodia, and magnificent
第八课的第四段：
It is likely that changes in the forest occurred over decades and would have been difficult to detect immediately.“This year we cleared those woods over there, but trees are starting to grow back again over here.” Furthermore,
any islander who issued a against the oncoming disaster would have been silenced by the ruling class. Chiefs, priests, and stone carvers all depended on the to
第八课的第六段：
Humanity may not act in time to prevent the decimation of the rain forests, fossil fuels, arable land, and fisheries. In only 40 years, Ethiopia’s forest cover shrank from 30% to 1%. During the same time period, the rest of the world lost half of its rain forests. Powerful decision-making groups ignore those who sound an alarm; their political, economic, and religious agendas fail to address the
第八课的第八段：
If we are going to avoid the fate of the Easter Islanders, we must change the myths that are leading us toward extinction and find inspiring visions of a plausible and appealing future. The old myths have collapsed, but no new ones have emerged to fill the vacuum. For transformation to occur, human beings must actively that goes to the heart of mythmaking. If we are each a cell in what Peter Russell calls “The Global Brain,” then this is an
第八课的第十二段：
But as the Grand Narrative of Progress came to dominate other values and views, it cast a malignant shadow.overcrowded highways, air pollution, and deforestation in its wake. increased crop production but also increased the growth of algae in lakes and canals. The discovery of powerful ——first greeted with enthusiasm and a Nobel Prize——was followed by the
but led to storage problems, life-threatening contamination, and at least one accident with worldwide repercussions. foul once-pristine lands. Although Western housing, clothing, and religion were brought to aboriginal people, and the rate of infectious disease went down, the rate of
第八课的第二十五段：
The third principle is to identify real-life situations in which antagonists can find common ground. With a recognition of the limitations of linguistic exchange, postmodernists urge that groups “press beyond dialogue.” For example, athletes and musicians generate smooth and effective teams or musical groups. Business executives and scientists
二、 文章结构分析
第八课1-4段
Countless cultures around the world have disappeared, along with their mythologies. In Mesoamerica, dozens of ornate Mayan temples lie mute, as do an untold number of Incan monuments in Peru, Celtic cairns in Wales, Khmer statues in Cambodia, and magnificent ziggurat-like structures in central Africa.
Easter Island, celebrated for the giant statues left by its vanished civilization, is unique in archaeology because of its isolation from its neighbors. Current archaeological evidence indicates that some 1,600 years ago the island’s first settlers, explorers from Polynesia, found themselves in a pristine paradise with subtropical forests, dozens of wild bird species, and no predators. They multiplied and prospered, distributing resources in a manner that suggests a sophisticated economy and complex political system. Rival clans erected ever-larger statues on platforms, emulating the stone carvings of their Polynesian forebears, trying to surpass each other with displays of power and wealth.
Eventually, as the island’s population grew to 20,000 people, the forests were cut more rapidly than they regenerated. Trees were transformed into fuel, canoes, and houses, as well as rollers and ropes to transport the gigantic stone heads. In time, the absence of wood for sea going canoes reduced the fish catches, while erosion and deforestation diminished crop yields. The growing populace consumed the local bird and animal populations. When the island could no longer feed its human population, the political and religious oligarchy that had directed and distributed the local resources began to languish. Many archaeologists believe the ruling class was overthrown by warriors. In the ensuing disorder, clan fought clan fought clan, toppling and desecrating each other’s statues. When the Europeans arrived on Easter Sunday, 1772, the once-fertile island was barren and desolate. Its remaining inhabitants, only a fraction of the numbers a few generations earlier, were heirs to a once-greater society that had degenerated into violence, starvation, and cannibalism.
It is likely that changes in the forest occurred over decades and would have been difficult to detect immediately. An islander might easily have missed the long-term trend, thinking: “This year we cleared those woods over there, but trees are starting to grow back again over here.” Furthermore, any islander who issued a warning against the oncoming disaster would have been silenced by the ruling class. Chiefs, priests, and stone carvers all depended on the status quo to retain their positions and privileges.
附：
武 汉 大 学
博士研究生英语试题
Part I Documental Analysis 20%
Attention: Analyze the following paragraph according to the
But as the Grand Narrative of Progress came to dominate other values and views, it cast a malignant shadow. The invention of the automobile was the quintessence of progress, but it left overcrowded highways, air pollution, and deforestation in its wake. Fertilizers increased crop production but also increased the growth of algae in lakes and canals. The discovery of powerful insecticides--first greeted with enthusiasm and a Nobel Prize--was followed by the unintentional poisoning of fish, birds, and animals. Nuclear power plants increased available energy but led to storage problems, life-threatening contamination, and at least one accident with worldwide repercussions. The waste products of technological living began to choke great cities and foul once-pristine lands. Although Western housing, clothing, and religion were brought to aboriginal people, and the rate of infectious disease went down, the rate of alcoholism, drug addiction, suicide, and spouse and child abuse went up.
Part II Article Analysis 15%
Attention: Fill the chart according to the requirements based on your understanding of the
following article.
1. We live in times that are harsh but exciting, where everyone agrees that we are moving to a new level of civilization. Principles, values, ways of life, will no longer be the same; but as yet we are not really ready for these changes; we are faced with inventing the future and also bringing it into operation, progressively; we make experiments and we frequently make mistakes; but we are beginning to know what we want when we talk of justice, freedom and democracy. The scientific and technological community is directly involved in the questions that arise. Following those of our generation, the demands of your generation will continue until these aims have been at least partially achieved.
2. The closeness of scientific problems to political problems is such that scientific workers are not,
far from it, protected from socio-economic vicissitudes. So much so that they sometimes express the same needs as all other workers and join them in this context; but they also call for specific measures. Like everyone else we need freedom but we especially need freedom of expression for our scientific and technological ideas; we need this even if it is only to put them forward for criticism. We don't ask for any particular privilege but we would like the efforts made to be evaluated at their actual worth, in the interests of society.
3. If our federation is so active in working for a statement of the rights and responsibilities of scientific workers, it is because we wish to resolve this problem in a way appropriate to most countries.
4. So you will certainly play an important part in society, even if this is not always readily recognized by society, because scientific and technological knowledge and expertise are the context in which future economic, social and political changes will take place. Whatever you do, you cannot ignore them and, whatever is said, society will not be able to ignore you. You will also have a decisive part to play, and perhaps an even more difficult one, in the scientific and technological community itself. The whole extension of this community and its interaction with society as a whole leads scientific workers to get involved in all political debates, crises and decisions. You will have to note the essential demands of science as such; it is not simply a matter of protecting society from unacceptable consequences; one must also protect scientific activity from political and financial meddling.
5. It is vital to safeguard the basic honesty of science, the honesty that is basic to its method. Whenever, in the history of science, this honesty has been set aside, the consequences have been serious. I am not speaking merely of the suicide or disgrace of an individual but of the social and economic damage arising from such lapses. There are worse possibilities: at a time when problems are increasingly complex, with ever widening political implications, we need science to be technically dependable and socially credible. In a world of turbulence, science's saving grace is not simply material but lies in its rationality.
Part III Writing 25%
Attention: Write an essay on the following topic with substantial evidence and good reasoning (e.g.
in a linear way) in more than 300 words.
---- On My Class Experience
Part I. Documental Analysis 20%
Topic: ______________________________ ______________________________
Perspective(s): __________________________ __________________________
Method(s): ___________________________ ___________________________
Skill(s): _______________________________ _______________________________
Questions: ____________________________ ____________________________
Part II. Article Analysis 15%