An Overview of International Business Negotiations
Many economic reviewers assume that international business deals will happen naturally if only the correct governmental policies and structures are in place. Corporate leaders assume that they can simply extend their successful domestic strategies to the international setting. Both of these assumptions are mistaken. Policies alone do not create business dea1s; companies do. Business executives will need to be much better educated about international negotiations in order to make successful deals. International business negotiations are fundamentally different from domestic negotiations, and require a different set of skills and knowledge.
There are three factors which are common to all international business negotiations, and which distinguish international business negotiations from domestic ones. The first is that in international negotiations the parties must deal with the laws, policies and political authorities of more than one nation. These laws and policies may be inconsistent, or even directly opposed.
A second factor unique to international business negotiations is the presence of different currencies. Different currencies give rise to two problems. Since the relative value of different currencies varies over time, the actual value of the prices or payments set by the contract may vary and result in unexpected losses or gains. The other problem is that each government generally seeks to control the flow of domestic and foreign currencies across their national borders. And unexpected changes in such governmental currency policies can have dramatic effects on international business deals.
国际商务谈判概览
许多经济评论家认为，只要政府政策正确，结构合理，国际商务交易就会自然发生。企业领导则认为，只需把在国内成功的策略扩展到国际环境中即可。这两种臆断都是错误的。政策本身不能产生商务交易，公司却可以。而为了成功达成交易，公司主管们也必须接受国际谈判方面更充分的培训。国际商务谈判从根本上有别于国内谈判，需要一套不同的技巧和知识。
不同的国际商务谈判有三种共同的要素，这也使其有别于国内谈判。首先，在国际商务谈判中，谈判方必须应对不止一国的法律、政策和政府机构。这些法律和政策可能相互不一致，甚至是针锋相对的。
其次，不同货币的存在是国际商务谈判所特有的。不同的货币会引发两个问题。由于不同货币的相对价值会随时变化，合同签订的价格或者款项的实际价值也会随之改变，从而产生意想不到的损失或收益。第二个问题是各国政府通常都会尽力控制国内外货币的相互流通。这种政府货币政策不可预期的变化会对国际商务交易造成巨大的影响。
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Finally cultural differences are an important factor in internationa1 negotiations. In addition to language differences, different cultures have different values and concepts. As a result, certain ideas may have very different meanings in different cultures. For instance, Americans and Japanese tend to have a different view of the purpose of negotiations. Americans see the goal of negotiations as to produce a binding contract which creates specific rights and obligations. Japanese see the goal of negotiations as to create a relationship between the two parties; the written contract is simply an expression of that relationship. What the Japanese see as a reasonable willingness to modify a contract to reflect changes in the parties' re1ationship, Americans see as a tendency to break a promise. American insistence on the original terms of the contract may be viewed as distrust by the Japanese.
Cultural differences are also present in different approaches to international business negotiations. Some cultures prefer to start from agreement on general principles, while others prefer to address each issue individually. Some cultures prefer to negotiate by "building up" from an initial minimum proposal; others prefer to "build down" from a more comprehensive opening proposal. Cultural differences also show up in the preferred pacing of negotiations and in decision-making styles.
最后，在国际谈判中文化差异也是一种重要因素。除了语言差异外，不同文化在价值和观念上也存在不同。因此，某些观念在不同文化中可能有着截然不同的涵义。例如，美国人和日本人在谈判目的上就持有不同的态度。美国人认为谈判的目的就是形成权利和义务关系明确的、有约束力的合约；日本人则认为谈判的目的在于建立一种双方之间的关系，书面合约不过是这种关系的表现形式。所以日本人认为由于双方关系的改变而修改合约的意图是合理的，在美国人眼中这却是一种毁约的倾向；而美国人对合约原始条款的坚持也可能会被日本人视为是对他们的不信任。
文化差异还体现在不同的国际商务谈判方式上。有些文化倾向于先在总体原则上达成一致，而另一些则倾向于先单个处理每项议题。有些文化喜欢从最初的小提议入手，自下而上进行谈判，而另一些文化则喜欢从更全面的开局议题入手，自上而下进行谈判。文化差异还会体现在所倾向的谈判节奏上和决策方式方面。
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Unit 2
Product Life Cycle
The concept of a product's life cyc1e may apply to a brand or to a category of products. Its duration may be as short as a few months for a fashion item or a century or more for product categories such as the gasoline-powered automobile. A product's life cycle can be divided into several stages characterized by the revenue generated by the product.
Product development is the incubation stage, during which there are no sales and the firm prepares to introduce the product. As the product progresses through its life cycle, changes in marketing strategies usually are required in order to adjust to the evo1ving challenges and opportunities.
When the product is introduced, sales will be low and advertising costs typically are high in order to rapidly increase customer awareness and to target the early adopters. The firm is likely to incur additional costs associated with the initial distribution of the product. These higher costs coupled with a low sales volume usually make the introduction stage a period of negative profits. The primary goal at this stage is to establish a market and build up demand for the product.
The growth stage sees a rapid growth in revenue when sales increase as more customers become aware of the product and its benefits. Once the product has been proven a success and customers begin asking for it, sales wi1l increase further as more retailers become interested in carrying it. When competitors enter the market, often during the 1ater part of the growth stage, there may be price competition. During the growth stage, the goal is to gain consumer preference and increase sales.
产品生命周期
产品生命周期的概念可适用于一个品牌或一类产品。周期长度对于时尚产品可能是短短几个月，而对于诸如机动车之类产品则可能是一个世纪或更长。根据产品产生的收益不同其生命周期可划分为几个时期。
产品开发属于孵化期，在此期间没有销售，同时公司在为推出新产品进行准备。随着产品逐步沿着生命周期发展，市场营销策略通常也需要改变，以适应随之出现的挑战和机遇。
当产品被推入市场时，销售量会很小。而为了能迅速提高顾客认知度和瞄准早期用户，广告费用通常却很高。公司还可能会为产品的初期经销承担额外的费用。这些高费用再加上低销量通常使引入期成为一个亏损期。该时期的基本目标是确立市场和逐步建立产品需求。
在成长期，随着更多的顾客了解产品及其优势，销量增加，收益快速增长。一旦产品获得成功，顾客便开始主动问津，更多的零售商也有意销售该产品，此时销量就会进一步增长。通常在成长期后段，竞争者会进入市场，可能会产生价格竞争。成长期的目标是赢得顾客的青睐和提高销售量。
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The maturity stage is the most profitable. While sales continue to increase into this stage, they do so at a slower pace. Because brand awareness is strong, advertising expenditures will be reduced. Competition may result in decreased market share and prices. The competing products may be yery similar at this point, increasing the difficulty of differentiating the product. Sales promotions may be offered to encourage retailers to give the product more shelf space over competing products. During the maturity stage, the primary goal is to maintain market share and extend the product's life cycle.
Eventually sales begin to decline as the market becomes saturated, the product becomes technologically obsolete, or customer tastes change. If the product has developed brand loyalty, the profitability may be maintained longer. Unit costs may increase with the declining production volumes and eventually no more profit can be made.
The product life cycle concept helps marketing managers to plan altemate marketing strategies to address the challenges that their products are likely to face. It also is useful for monitoring sales results over time and comparing them to those of products having a similar life cycle.
成熟期是最盈利的阶段。进入成熟期销量保持持续增长，但其增长速度会放缓。由于品牌认知度已经很高，广告费用会减少。竞争会带来市场份额的缩小和价格的降低。此时，竞争产品可能变得非常相似，从而增加了本产品与其相区别的难度。为鼓励零售商为本产品提供比其他竞争产品更多的货架空间，促销活动也会出现。成熟期的基本目标是保持市场份额并延长产品生命周期。
一最后，由于市场饱和、产品技术过时或顾客品味改变，销量开始下降。如果产品已形成品牌忠诚度，则盈利能力可更持久。随着产量的减少单位成本会一增加，直到最后无利可图。
产品生命周期的概念有助于销售经理们筹划不同的市场营销策略以应对其产品可能面临的挑战；同时还有助于长期监控销售结果，并将其与那些具有类似生命周期的产品的销售结果进行比较。
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Product recall
A product recall is defined as the action taken to prevent the distribution, sales and use or consumption of a product which may pose a safety hazard to consumers. Such action may be taken if there is reasonable probability that the use or\comsumption of the product would cause health consequences, injury or death. Recalls are costly to a company because they often entail replacing the reca1led product or paying for damage caused in use, in addition to the indirect cost following damage to brand name and reduced trust in the manufacturer. A good example is the recall of over 500,000 Toyota Tundra pickup trucks; which had a steering problem that resulted in several accidents, forcing the manufacturer to attempt to right the problem.
A country's consumer protection laws usually have specific requirements in regard to product recalls. Such regulations may include how much of the cost the maker will have to bear, situations in which a recall is compulsory, or pena1ties for failure to recall. A company may also initiate a recall voluntarily perhaps subject to the same regulations as if the recall were compulsory. Suppliers are encouraged to voluntarily recall a product as soon as a defect is found that makes the product hazardous or unsafe for use or consumption. It is in the best interest of the suppliers to make sure that these products are effectively removed or prevented from the market place.
Consumer organizations often examine products and warn the public of possible defects that diminish a product’s functional value or safety. In the meantime, individual consumers may use grass-roots tactics to bring public attention to corporate misconduct, including writing to newspapers and posting information on product defects, threatening the maker's publicity if the faults are not put right.
产品召回
产品召回是指针对存在消费安全隐患的产品所采取的防止其流通、销售或被使用的行动。如果正常情况下消费者使用产品有可能导致健康问题、身体损伤或死亡，那么就需要采取产品召回的行动。
对于公司来说产品召回需要付出高昂的代价，因为公司除了要承受品牌形象损失及信任度下降带来的间接损失，通常还要替换被召回的产品．或赔偿消费者因使用该产品适成的伤害。一个典型的例子就是丰田公司曾召回超过50万辆Tundra牌轻型货车，它们的转向装置都存在问题，并造成了多起事故，生产商不得不采取行动纠正这一错误。
一个国家的消费者保护法对于产品召回通常都有具体的要求。这些法规涉及到制造商应承担的损失，哪些情况下必须召回产品，以及制造商不召回产品所面临的处罚。公司也会主动召回产品，这种情况与强制性召回一样，公司需’要遵从相同的法规。一旦发现产品在使用或消费过程中存在安全隐患，供应商最好能主动召回产品。有效确保这些产品不在市场上流通也是最符合供应商利益的。
消费者协会经常会进行产品检查并告知公众那些可能降低产品使用价值及安全性的缺陷。同时，个体消费者也可以利用一些平民化的手段让公众注意到一些企业的错误行为，比如写信到报社，发布有关产品缺陷的信息，这样在错误得不到更正时就可以威胁制造商的声誉。
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When it becomes apparent that a product is likely to cause injury or adverse hea1th effect to a person, the supplier should take the necessary steps required to recall the product and control the risk. A product can be recalled at three levels: wholesale, retail and individual consumer. After assessing the product distribution in market place, the supplier should determine the levels of product recalls. Determination of the level of recalls is dependent on how far the product has penetrated the market from the supplier. An individual consumer recall is the most serious and extensive type and involves recovery of the product from individual consumers.
Being aware of product recalls is important for the safety of anyone who comes in contact with the product and perhaps for the enjoyment of the product's full value. Unfortunately, recalls are not always easy to learn about, and companies do not always publicize a recal1in an effort to limit the cost of replacing the product.
当某种产品明显可能会对消费者的健康造成伤害或不良影响时，供应商应遵从必要的步骤召回产品并控制风险。产品召回可分为三个层面：批发、零售及个体消费者。供应商在评估完产品在市场的流通情况后，就应该决定从哪个层面上召回产品。产品召回的层面取决于其在市场的渗透情况。从个体消费者层面召回产品最为严重，涉及范围也最广，需要从每位消费者手中收回产品。
充分了解产品召回对于保证每位接触产品的消费者的安全并确保其充分享受产品价值来说意义重大。令人遗憾的是，消费者并不容易获知有关产品召回捎信息，而公司为了控制替换产品的成本，通常也不会公开宣传有关产品召回的信息。
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The Ponzi Scheme
A Ponzi scheme is an invstment fraud that appears to be actually paying high returns by paying the supposed returns out of victim’s own capital. It is named after Carlo Ponzi who ran a huge Ponzi scheme in the US in the 1920s.
A typical Ponzi scheme promises investors a high rate of returns in a short time. The money that is collected from investors is used to pay the returns. This means the fraud can run for some time, because investors appear to be making the promised returns. Early participants can profit, as they can with a pyramid scheme. However as the scheme needs more and more "investors" to keep joining, it is inevitable that it will eventually run out of people who are willing to join. The result is that the fraudster makes a large profit, people who join early also make profits, and those who join later lose their "investments". The easiest way to explain this is with an example. Suppose the scheme promises a return of l0% a month. The fraudster simply takes inye8tors' money and returns a tenth of it at the end of every month. The fact that investors appear to be getting the returns they were promised will encourage more people to put their money in the scheme, and even encourage the original wave of victims to reinvest. After ten months the fraudster will have returned all the money invested by the very first investors (assuming they did not reinvest), but wi11 have most of the money invested by 1ater investors. At this point the fraudster simp1y takes the money and disappears.
Common types of Ponzi scheme operate under a variety of names inc1uding "high yield investment program" and "high yield bonds".Their common characteristics are very high returns with no c1ear under1ying business to generate them.
庞氏骗局
庞氏骗局是一种看似高回报实际是以受害者自己的资金来支付应付报酬的投资骗局。它以卡罗·庞齐的名字命名，此人于20世纪20年代在美国策划组织了一场大规模的庞氏骗局。
庞氏骗局承诺投资者在短期内获得高额回报，而用来支付高额回报的资金田是从投资者那里筹集来的．这就意味着这种骗局可以支撑一段时间，因为投资者似乎得到了所承诺的回报。早期参与者能够获利，这与金字塔骗局是一样的。然而，由于这种骗局需要越来越多“投资者”的不断加入，迟早有一天会出现采再有投资者愿意参与此项投资的情况。最终的结果就是行骗者能够获取丰厚例润，早期参与者也能获利，但后来的参与者却会失去他们的“投资”。
一个例子就能清楚地说明此骗局是如何运作的。假设该骗局承诺每月10％的回报，行骗者收取投资者的资金，然后在每月月底拿出十分之一作为回报。投资者似乎得到了所承诺的回报，这就会鼓励更多的人把资金投入这一骗局，急至还会诱使原来的投资者继续投资。十个月之后行骗者就会把第一批投资者伪本金（假设他们没有再继续投资）全部归还，但此时行骗者已经得到了后期投资者的大部分资金，此时，行骗者便可以携款消失。
常见的各种庞氏骗局通常冠以“高收益投资项目”或“高收益债券”等各式各样的名号，其共同特点就是高回报，但却没有支撑高回报的基础业务。
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More complex forms of Ponzi scheme can be harder to detect. They may well appear to be legitimate investments. They may even be part of an investment that includes both legitimate and Ponzi elements. An example of the latter is an investment company that offers very high returns to depositors, and does lend the money (as a real investment company would) to make returns, but does so knowing that the returns on loans will not suffice to cover the interest paid to depositors.
Anything that offers very high returns without correspondingly high risk should be regarded with great suspicion. Any investment sold through unusual channels (e.g., spam email or cold calling) or by a business that is not appropriately regulated (e.g., by a national regulator) is also both suspicious and probably illegal. lt is usually possible to check with regulators whether someone selling investments is regulated or not.
一些更复杂的庞氏骗局较难识破。一些表面看来很像是合法的投资项目，一些则混合了合法投资与庞氏骗局的元素。举一个后者的例子，某投资公司向储户提供高额回报，他们会（像一个真正的投资公司那样）通过借贷来赚取利润，但他们很清楚贷款所获的收益不足以支付储户的利息。
任何只有高回报而没有相应高风险的投资都很可疑。当一个投资项目是通过非正常渠道销售（如垃圾邮件或陌生推销电话），或由非正规监管（如接受国家监管机构的监管）的公司销售时，都应该受到质疑，而且很可能是非法的。通常可以去监管机构核查某个投资项目是否受到监管。
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Important and Export
Trade barriers are restrictions on what would otherwise be free trade. They may occur in international trade when goods have to cross political boundaries. The most common form of trade barriers is tariffs, or duties, which are usually imposed on imports. There is also a category of non-tariff barriers, which also serve to restrict global trade.
There are several different types of duties or tariffs. An export duty is a tax levied on goods leaving a country, while an import duty is charged on goods entering a country. A duty or tariff may be categorized according to how it is calculated. For example, an ad valorem tariff is calculated as a percentage of the value of the goods being imported or exported, as opposed to a specific duty, which is based on the quantity, weight or volume of goods.
Duties and tariffs are also categorized according to their function or purpose. An antidumping duy is imposed on imports that are priced below fair market value and that would damage domestic producers. Antidumping duties are a1so called punitive tariffs. A countervailing duty, another type of punitive tariff, is specifically charged on imports that have been subsidized by the exporting country's government in order to offset the subsidy Another type of tariff is the prohibitive tariff ,which is designed to substantially reduce or stop altogether the importation of a particular product, typically when the amount of the imported goods exceeds a certain permitted level.
贸易壁垒
贸易壁垒是对自由贸易的限制。在国际贸易中，如果货物必须跨越政治边界，就可能会出现贸易壁垒。贸易壁垒最常见的形式是关税，通常对进口货物进行征收。还有一类非关税壁垒，也可以限制全球贸易.
关税分为不同类别。出口关税是对出口货物征收的，而进口关税则对进口货物征收。关税可以根据其计算方式分类。例如，从价关税是根据出口或进口货物价值的一定百分率来计算的，与之相对应的是从量关税，它是根据货物的数量、重量或体积来计算的。
关税也可按其功能或用途分类。反倾销税是对那些定价低于公平市价、将会损害国内生产者利益的进口货物征收的，也称惩罚性关税。反补贴税是另一种惩罚性关税，它是针对那些已由出口国政府给予补贴的进口商品征收的一种关税，用以抵消政府的补贴。还有一种关税是禁止性关税，目的是大幅度减少或完全停止某一产品的进口，尤其是当进口货物的数量超过了限定水平的时候。
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In addition to duties and tariffs, there are also non-tariff barriers (NTBs) to international trade. These include quantitative restrictions, or quotas, that may be imposed by one country or as the result of agreements between two or more countries. Administrative regu1ations constitute a second category of NTBs. These include fees, licenses, permits and other requirements that must be met in order for trade to occur. The third type of NTBs covers technical regulations that apply to such areas as packaging, labeling and safety standards. Some existing technical trade barriers include environmental, hea1th, and safety certification requirements.
There are seyeral reasons advanced for imposing trade barriers. These include protecting domestic producers (especia1ly infant industries) against foreign competitors, improving a nation's terms of trade, reducing domestic unemployment, and improving a nation's balance-of-payment position. Those who would argue against imposing trade barriers point to the possibility of retaliation by other nations, leading to a trade war. The more trade barriers there are, the lower the volume of international trade and the higher the domestic prices of imported goods. As a result, global resources are less effciently allocated and the level of the worid income and production is reduced. It has been the recognition of the negative effects of trade barriers on international trade that has led to international agreements, such as GATT, designed to reduce or eliminate them.
除了关税之外，国际贸易中还存在非关税壁垒，包括数量限制，即配额，可由一国征收，或根据两个或两个以上国家之间的协定来征收。行政法规是另一种非关税壁垒，包括进行贸易必须满足的一些要求，如缴费、执照、许可证等等。第三种非关税壁垒则是涉及包装、标签及安全标准等的技术规范。一些现有的技术性贸易壁垒包括对环境认证、健康认证、安全认证的要求。
赞成贸易壁垒的理由包括保护国内生产者（特别是新兴产业）不受国外竞争对手的威胁，改善国内进出口比率，减少国内失业，以及改善国家的国际收支状况。反对施加贸易壁垒的一方则指出这种做法可能会引起其他国家的报复，从而导致贸易战。贸易壁垒越多，国际贸易总额则越少，而国内进口商品的价格就越高。其结果是，全球资源得不到有效分配，世界整体收入水平降低，生产力下降。正是因为人们意识到了贸易壁垒对国际贸易的负面影响，才促成了关税贸易总协定等国际性协议的达成，目的就是为了减少或消除贸易壁垒。
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An Overview of International Business Negotiations
Many economic reviewers assume that international business deals will happen naturally if only the correct governmental policies and structures are in place. Corporate leaders assume that they can simply extend their successful domestic strategies to the international setting. Both of these assumptions are mistaken. Policies alone do not create business dea1s; companies do. Business executives will need to be much better educated about international negotiations in order to make successful deals. International business negotiations are fundamentally different from domestic negotiations, and require a different set of skills and knowledge.
There are three factors which are common to all international business negotiations, and which distinguish international business negotiations from domestic ones. The first is that in international negotiations the parties must deal with the laws, policies and political authorities of more than one nation. These laws and policies may be inconsistent, or even directly opposed.
A second factor unique to international business negotiations is the presence of different currencies. Different currencies give rise to two problems. Since the relative value of different currencies varies over time, the actual value of the prices or payments set by the contract may vary and result in unexpected losses or gains. The other problem is that each government generally seeks to control the flow of domestic and foreign currencies across their national borders. And unexpected changes in such governmental currency policies can have dramatic effects on international business deals.
国际商务谈判概览
许多经济评论家认为，只要政府政策正确，结构合理，国际商务交易就会自然发生。企业领导则认为，只需把在国内成功的策略扩展到国际环境中即可。这两种臆断都是错误的。政策本身不能产生商务交易，公司却可以。而为了成功达成交易，公司主管们也必须接受国际谈判方面更充分的培训。国际商务谈判从根本上有别于国内谈判，需要一套不同的技巧和知识。
不同的国际商务谈判有三种共同的要素，这也使其有别于国内谈判。首先，在国际商务谈判中，谈判方必须应对不止一国的法律、政策和政府机构。这些法律和政策可能相互不一致，甚至是针锋相对的。
其次，不同货币的存在是国际商务谈判所特有的。不同的货币会引发两个问题。由于不同货币的相对价值会随时变化，合同签订的价格或者款项的实际价值也会随之改变，从而产生意想不到的损失或收益。第二个问题是各国政府通常都会尽力控制国内外货币的相互流通。这种政府货币政策不可预期的变化会对国际商务交易造成巨大的影响。
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Finally cultural differences are an important factor in internationa1 negotiations. In addition to language differences, different cultures have different values and concepts. As a result, certain ideas may have very different meanings in different cultures. For instance, Americans and Japanese tend to have a different view of the purpose of negotiations. Americans see the goal of negotiations as to produce a binding contract which creates specific rights and obligations. Japanese see the goal of negotiations as to create a relationship between the two parties; the written contract is simply an expression of that relationship. What the Japanese see as a reasonable willingness to modify a contract to reflect changes in the parties' re1ationship, Americans see as a tendency to break a promise. American insistence on the original terms of the contract may be viewed as distrust by the Japanese.
Cultural differences are also present in different approaches to international business negotiations. Some cultures prefer to start from agreement on general principles, while others prefer to address each issue individually. Some cultures prefer to negotiate by "building up" from an initial minimum proposal; others prefer to "build down" from a more comprehensive opening proposal. Cultural differences also show up in the preferred pacing of negotiations and in decision-making styles.
最后，在国际谈判中文化差异也是一种重要因素。除了语言差异外，不同文化在价值和观念上也存在不同。因此，某些观念在不同文化中可能有着截然不同的涵义。例如，美国人和日本人在谈判目的上就持有不同的态度。美国人认为谈判的目的就是形成权利和义务关系明确的、有约束力的合约；日本人则认为谈判的目的在于建立一种双方之间的关系，书面合约不过是这种关系的表现形式。所以日本人认为由于双方关系的改变而修改合约的意图是合理的，在美国人眼中这却是一种毁约的倾向；而美国人对合约原始条款的坚持也可能会被日本人视为是对他们的不信任。
文化差异还体现在不同的国际商务谈判方式上。有些文化倾向于先在总体原则上达成一致，而另一些则倾向于先单个处理每项议题。有些文化喜欢从最初的小提议入手，自下而上进行谈判，而另一些文化则喜欢从更全面的开局议题入手，自上而下进行谈判。文化差异还会体现在所倾向的谈判节奏上和决策方式方面。
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Unit 2
Product Life Cycle
The concept of a product's life cyc1e may apply to a brand or to a category of products. Its duration may be as short as a few months for a fashion item or a century or more for product categories such as the gasoline-powered automobile. A product's life cycle can be divided into several stages characterized by the revenue generated by the product.
Product development is the incubation stage, during which there are no sales and the firm prepares to introduce the product. As the product progresses through its life cycle, changes in marketing strategies usually are required in order to adjust to the evo1ving challenges and opportunities.
When the product is introduced, sales will be low and advertising costs typically are high in order to rapidly increase customer awareness and to target the early adopters. The firm is likely to incur additional costs associated with the initial distribution of the product. These higher costs coupled with a low sales volume usually make the introduction stage a period of negative profits. The primary goal at this stage is to establish a market and build up demand for the product.
The growth stage sees a rapid growth in revenue when sales increase as more customers become aware of the product and its benefits. Once the product has been proven a success and customers begin asking for it, sales wi1l increase further as more retailers become interested in carrying it. When competitors enter the market, often during the 1ater part of the growth stage, there may be price competition. During the growth stage, the goal is to gain consumer preference and increase sales.
产品生命周期
产品生命周期的概念可适用于一个品牌或一类产品。周期长度对于时尚产品可能是短短几个月，而对于诸如机动车之类产品则可能是一个世纪或更长。根据产品产生的收益不同其生命周期可划分为几个时期。
产品开发属于孵化期，在此期间没有销售，同时公司在为推出新产品进行准备。随着产品逐步沿着生命周期发展，市场营销策略通常也需要改变，以适应随之出现的挑战和机遇。
当产品被推入市场时，销售量会很小。而为了能迅速提高顾客认知度和瞄准早期用户，广告费用通常却很高。公司还可能会为产品的初期经销承担额外的费用。这些高费用再加上低销量通常使引入期成为一个亏损期。该时期的基本目标是确立市场和逐步建立产品需求。
在成长期，随着更多的顾客了解产品及其优势，销量增加，收益快速增长。一旦产品获得成功，顾客便开始主动问津，更多的零售商也有意销售该产品，此时销量就会进一步增长。通常在成长期后段，竞争者会进入市场，可能会产生价格竞争。成长期的目标是赢得顾客的青睐和提高销售量。
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The maturity stage is the most profitable. While sales continue to increase into this stage, they do so at a slower pace. Because brand awareness is strong, advertising expenditures will be reduced. Competition may result in decreased market share and prices. The competing products may be yery similar at this point, increasing the difficulty of differentiating the product. Sales promotions may be offered to encourage retailers to give the product more shelf space over competing products. During the maturity stage, the primary goal is to maintain market share and extend the product's life cycle.
Eventually sales begin to decline as the market becomes saturated, the product becomes technologically obsolete, or customer tastes change. If the product has developed brand loyalty, the profitability may be maintained longer. Unit costs may increase with the declining production volumes and eventually no more profit can be made.
The product life cycle concept helps marketing managers to plan altemate marketing strategies to address the challenges that their products are likely to face. It also is useful for monitoring sales results over time and comparing them to those of products having a similar life cycle.
成熟期是最盈利的阶段。进入成熟期销量保持持续增长，但其增长速度会放缓。由于品牌认知度已经很高，广告费用会减少。竞争会带来市场份额的缩小和价格的降低。此时，竞争产品可能变得非常相似，从而增加了本产品与其相区别的难度。为鼓励零售商为本产品提供比其他竞争产品更多的货架空间，促销活动也会出现。成熟期的基本目标是保持市场份额并延长产品生命周期。
一最后，由于市场饱和、产品技术过时或顾客品味改变，销量开始下降。如果产品已形成品牌忠诚度，则盈利能力可更持久。随着产量的减少单位成本会一增加，直到最后无利可图。
产品生命周期的概念有助于销售经理们筹划不同的市场营销策略以应对其产品可能面临的挑战；同时还有助于长期监控销售结果，并将其与那些具有类似生命周期的产品的销售结果进行比较。
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Product recall
A product recall is defined as the action taken to prevent the distribution, sales and use or consumption of a product which may pose a safety hazard to consumers. Such action may be taken if there is reasonable probability that the use or\comsumption of the product would cause health consequences, injury or death. Recalls are costly to a company because they often entail replacing the reca1led product or paying for damage caused in use, in addition to the indirect cost following damage to brand name and reduced trust in the manufacturer. A good example is the recall of over 500,000 Toyota Tundra pickup trucks; which had a steering problem that resulted in several accidents, forcing the manufacturer to attempt to right the problem.
A country's consumer protection laws usually have specific requirements in regard to product recalls. Such regulations may include how much of the cost the maker will have to bear, situations in which a recall is compulsory, or pena1ties for failure to recall. A company may also initiate a recall voluntarily perhaps subject to the same regulations as if the recall were compulsory. Suppliers are encouraged to voluntarily recall a product as soon as a defect is found that makes the product hazardous or unsafe for use or consumption. It is in the best interest of the suppliers to make sure that these products are effectively removed or prevented from the market place.
Consumer organizations often examine products and warn the public of possible defects that diminish a product’s functional value or safety. In the meantime, individual consumers may use grass-roots tactics to bring public attention to corporate misconduct, including writing to newspapers and posting information on product defects, threatening the maker's publicity if the faults are not put right.
产品召回
产品召回是指针对存在消费安全隐患的产品所采取的防止其流通、销售或被使用的行动。如果正常情况下消费者使用产品有可能导致健康问题、身体损伤或死亡，那么就需要采取产品召回的行动。
对于公司来说产品召回需要付出高昂的代价，因为公司除了要承受品牌形象损失及信任度下降带来的间接损失，通常还要替换被召回的产品．或赔偿消费者因使用该产品适成的伤害。一个典型的例子就是丰田公司曾召回超过50万辆Tundra牌轻型货车，它们的转向装置都存在问题，并造成了多起事故，生产商不得不采取行动纠正这一错误。
一个国家的消费者保护法对于产品召回通常都有具体的要求。这些法规涉及到制造商应承担的损失，哪些情况下必须召回产品，以及制造商不召回产品所面临的处罚。公司也会主动召回产品，这种情况与强制性召回一样，公司需’要遵从相同的法规。一旦发现产品在使用或消费过程中存在安全隐患，供应商最好能主动召回产品。有效确保这些产品不在市场上流通也是最符合供应商利益的。
消费者协会经常会进行产品检查并告知公众那些可能降低产品使用价值及安全性的缺陷。同时，个体消费者也可以利用一些平民化的手段让公众注意到一些企业的错误行为，比如写信到报社，发布有关产品缺陷的信息，这样在错误得不到更正时就可以威胁制造商的声誉。
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When it becomes apparent that a product is likely to cause injury or adverse hea1th effect to a person, the supplier should take the necessary steps required to recall the product and control the risk. A product can be recalled at three levels: wholesale, retail and individual consumer. After assessing the product distribution in market place, the supplier should determine the levels of product recalls. Determination of the level of recalls is dependent on how far the product has penetrated the market from the supplier. An individual consumer recall is the most serious and extensive type and involves recovery of the product from individual consumers.
Being aware of product recalls is important for the safety of anyone who comes in contact with the product and perhaps for the enjoyment of the product's full value. Unfortunately, recalls are not always easy to learn about, and companies do not always publicize a recal1in an effort to limit the cost of replacing the product.
当某种产品明显可能会对消费者的健康造成伤害或不良影响时，供应商应遵从必要的步骤召回产品并控制风险。产品召回可分为三个层面：批发、零售及个体消费者。供应商在评估完产品在市场的流通情况后，就应该决定从哪个层面上召回产品。产品召回的层面取决于其在市场的渗透情况。从个体消费者层面召回产品最为严重，涉及范围也最广，需要从每位消费者手中收回产品。
充分了解产品召回对于保证每位接触产品的消费者的安全并确保其充分享受产品价值来说意义重大。令人遗憾的是，消费者并不容易获知有关产品召回捎信息，而公司为了控制替换产品的成本，通常也不会公开宣传有关产品召回的信息。
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The Ponzi Scheme
A Ponzi scheme is an invstment fraud that appears to be actually paying high returns by paying the supposed returns out of victim’s own capital. It is named after Carlo Ponzi who ran a huge Ponzi scheme in the US in the 1920s.
A typical Ponzi scheme promises investors a high rate of returns in a short time. The money that is collected from investors is used to pay the returns. This means the fraud can run for some time, because investors appear to be making the promised returns. Early participants can profit, as they can with a pyramid scheme. However as the scheme needs more and more "investors" to keep joining, it is inevitable that it will eventually run out of people who are willing to join. The result is that the fraudster makes a large profit, people who join early also make profits, and those who join later lose their "investments". The easiest way to explain this is with an example. Suppose the scheme promises a return of l0% a month. The fraudster simply takes inye8tors' money and returns a tenth of it at the end of every month. The fact that investors appear to be getting the returns they were promised will encourage more people to put their money in the scheme, and even encourage the original wave of victims to reinvest. After ten months the fraudster will have returned all the money invested by the very first investors (assuming they did not reinvest), but wi11 have most of the money invested by 1ater investors. At this point the fraudster simp1y takes the money and disappears.
Common types of Ponzi scheme operate under a variety of names inc1uding "high yield investment program" and "high yield bonds".Their common characteristics are very high returns with no c1ear under1ying business to generate them.
庞氏骗局
庞氏骗局是一种看似高回报实际是以受害者自己的资金来支付应付报酬的投资骗局。它以卡罗·庞齐的名字命名，此人于20世纪20年代在美国策划组织了一场大规模的庞氏骗局。
庞氏骗局承诺投资者在短期内获得高额回报，而用来支付高额回报的资金田是从投资者那里筹集来的．这就意味着这种骗局可以支撑一段时间，因为投资者似乎得到了所承诺的回报。早期参与者能够获利，这与金字塔骗局是一样的。然而，由于这种骗局需要越来越多“投资者”的不断加入，迟早有一天会出现采再有投资者愿意参与此项投资的情况。最终的结果就是行骗者能够获取丰厚例润，早期参与者也能获利，但后来的参与者却会失去他们的“投资”。
一个例子就能清楚地说明此骗局是如何运作的。假设该骗局承诺每月10％的回报，行骗者收取投资者的资金，然后在每月月底拿出十分之一作为回报。投资者似乎得到了所承诺的回报，这就会鼓励更多的人把资金投入这一骗局，急至还会诱使原来的投资者继续投资。十个月之后行骗者就会把第一批投资者伪本金（假设他们没有再继续投资）全部归还，但此时行骗者已经得到了后期投资者的大部分资金，此时，行骗者便可以携款消失。
常见的各种庞氏骗局通常冠以“高收益投资项目”或“高收益债券”等各式各样的名号，其共同特点就是高回报，但却没有支撑高回报的基础业务。
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More complex forms of Ponzi scheme can be harder to detect. They may well appear to be legitimate investments. They may even be part of an investment that includes both legitimate and Ponzi elements. An example of the latter is an investment company that offers very high returns to depositors, and does lend the money (as a real investment company would) to make returns, but does so knowing that the returns on loans will not suffice to cover the interest paid to depositors.
Anything that offers very high returns without correspondingly high risk should be regarded with great suspicion. Any investment sold through unusual channels (e.g., spam email or cold calling) or by a business that is not appropriately regulated (e.g., by a national regulator) is also both suspicious and probably illegal. lt is usually possible to check with regulators whether someone selling investments is regulated or not.
一些更复杂的庞氏骗局较难识破。一些表面看来很像是合法的投资项目，一些则混合了合法投资与庞氏骗局的元素。举一个后者的例子，某投资公司向储户提供高额回报，他们会（像一个真正的投资公司那样）通过借贷来赚取利润，但他们很清楚贷款所获的收益不足以支付储户的利息。
任何只有高回报而没有相应高风险的投资都很可疑。当一个投资项目是通过非正常渠道销售（如垃圾邮件或陌生推销电话），或由非正规监管（如接受国家监管机构的监管）的公司销售时，都应该受到质疑，而且很可能是非法的。通常可以去监管机构核查某个投资项目是否受到监管。
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Important and Export
Trade barriers are restrictions on what would otherwise be free trade. They may occur in international trade when goods have to cross political boundaries. The most common form of trade barriers is tariffs, or duties, which are usually imposed on imports. There is also a category of non-tariff barriers, which also serve to restrict global trade.
There are several different types of duties or tariffs. An export duty is a tax levied on goods leaving a country, while an import duty is charged on goods entering a country. A duty or tariff may be categorized according to how it is calculated. For example, an ad valorem tariff is calculated as a percentage of the value of the goods being imported or exported, as opposed to a specific duty, which is based on the quantity, weight or volume of goods.
Duties and tariffs are also categorized according to their function or purpose. An antidumping duy is imposed on imports that are priced below fair market value and that would damage domestic producers. Antidumping duties are a1so called punitive tariffs. A countervailing duty, another type of punitive tariff, is specifically charged on imports that have been subsidized by the exporting country's government in order to offset the subsidy Another type of tariff is the prohibitive tariff ,which is designed to substantially reduce or stop altogether the importation of a particular product, typically when the amount of the imported goods exceeds a certain permitted level.
贸易壁垒
贸易壁垒是对自由贸易的限制。在国际贸易中，如果货物必须跨越政治边界，就可能会出现贸易壁垒。贸易壁垒最常见的形式是关税，通常对进口货物进行征收。还有一类非关税壁垒，也可以限制全球贸易.
关税分为不同类别。出口关税是对出口货物征收的，而进口关税则对进口货物征收。关税可以根据其计算方式分类。例如，从价关税是根据出口或进口货物价值的一定百分率来计算的，与之相对应的是从量关税，它是根据货物的数量、重量或体积来计算的。
关税也可按其功能或用途分类。反倾销税是对那些定价低于公平市价、将会损害国内生产者利益的进口货物征收的，也称惩罚性关税。反补贴税是另一种惩罚性关税，它是针对那些已由出口国政府给予补贴的进口商品征收的一种关税，用以抵消政府的补贴。还有一种关税是禁止性关税，目的是大幅度减少或完全停止某一产品的进口，尤其是当进口货物的数量超过了限定水平的时候。
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In addition to duties and tariffs, there are also non-tariff barriers (NTBs) to international trade. These include quantitative restrictions, or quotas, that may be imposed by one country or as the result of agreements between two or more countries. Administrative regu1ations constitute a second category of NTBs. These include fees, licenses, permits and other requirements that must be met in order for trade to occur. The third type of NTBs covers technical regulations that apply to such areas as packaging, labeling and safety standards. Some existing technical trade barriers include environmental, hea1th, and safety certification requirements.
There are seyeral reasons advanced for imposing trade barriers. These include protecting domestic producers (especia1ly infant industries) against foreign competitors, improving a nation's terms of trade, reducing domestic unemployment, and improving a nation's balance-of-payment position. Those who would argue against imposing trade barriers point to the possibility of retaliation by other nations, leading to a trade war. The more trade barriers there are, the lower the volume of international trade and the higher the domestic prices of imported goods. As a result, global resources are less effciently allocated and the level of the worid income and production is reduced. It has been the recognition of the negative effects of trade barriers on international trade that has led to international agreements, such as GATT, designed to reduce or eliminate them.
除了关税之外，国际贸易中还存在非关税壁垒，包括数量限制，即配额，可由一国征收，或根据两个或两个以上国家之间的协定来征收。行政法规是另一种非关税壁垒，包括进行贸易必须满足的一些要求，如缴费、执照、许可证等等。第三种非关税壁垒则是涉及包装、标签及安全标准等的技术规范。一些现有的技术性贸易壁垒包括对环境认证、健康认证、安全认证的要求。
赞成贸易壁垒的理由包括保护国内生产者（特别是新兴产业）不受国外竞争对手的威胁，改善国内进出口比率，减少国内失业，以及改善国家的国际收支状况。反对施加贸易壁垒的一方则指出这种做法可能会引起其他国家的报复，从而导致贸易战。贸易壁垒越多，国际贸易总额则越少，而国内进口商品的价格就越高。其结果是，全球资源得不到有效分配，世界整体收入水平降低，生产力下降。正是因为人们意识到了贸易壁垒对国际贸易的负面影响，才促成了关税贸易总协定等国际性协议的达成，目的就是为了减少或消除贸易壁垒。
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