SnapShot: Pattern-Recognition Receptors
Taro Kawai and Shizuo AkiraResearch Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
(A) Toll-like receptor signaling. Toll-like receptor (TLR) 3 recognizes polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid (poly IC), whereas TLR4 recognizes lipopolysaccharide (LPS). TLR2 recog-nizes various components such as lipoprotein and peptidoglycan (PGN). TLR5 detects flagellin. TLR7 and TLR9 detect single-stranded (ss)RNA and CpG DNA, respectively. Each TLR recruits a distinct set of Toll/interleukin-1 receptor (TIR) domain-containing adaptor molecules such as myeloid differentiation primary response gene 88 (MyD88), TIR-containing adaptor protein (TIRAP, also known as MAL), TIR-containing adaptor-inducing IFNβ (TRIF, also known as TICAM1) and TRIF-related adaptor molecule (TRAM, also known as TICAM2). TLR3 uses TRIF, and TLR5, 7, and 9 use MyD88. TLR2 uses MyD88 and TIRAP, and TLR4 uses MyD88, TIRAP, TRIF, and TRAM. MyD88 binds to inter-leukin-1 receptor-associated kinase 4 (IRAK4) and TRAF6. TRIF binds receptor-interacting protein 1 (RIP1) and TRAF6. TRAF6 forms a complex with Ubc13, Uev1A, and ECSIT (evolutionarily conserved signaling intermediate in Toll/IL-1R pathways) to activate a complex containing transforming growth factor-β-activated kinase 1 (TAK1), TAK1-binding protein 1 (TAB1), TAB2, and TAB3. TAK1 activates IκB kinase (IKK) complex consisting of IKKα, IKKβ, and Nemo (also known as IKKγ), which results in the phosphorylation and proteasomal degradation of IκB proteins and the release of a transcription factor NFκB to the nucleus to regulate expression of inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα). TAK1 simultaneously activates the MAPK (JNK, p38, and ERK) pathway, leading to activation of AP-1 that controls expression of inflammatory cytokines. TRIF recruits TRAF3, which interacts with IKK-related kinases, TANK-binding kinase 1 (TBK1, also known as T2K and NAK), and IKKi (also known as IKK ε). These kinases, together with adaptors TANK and NAP1, catalyze the phosphorylation of IRF3. Phosphorylated IRF3 forms a dimer, translocates into the nuclei, binds to DNA, and regulates the expression of interferon β (IFNβ) in collaboration with AP-1 and NFκB. IRF3 is also activated by phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase (PI3K), which interacts with TLR3. In TLR2, 4, 5, 7, and 9 signaling, IRF5 is recruited to the MyD88-IRAK4-TRAF6 complex, then translocates into the nuclei to control the induction of inflammatory cytokines. In TLR7 and 9 signaling, a signaling complex consisting of TRAF3, osteopontin (OPN), IRAK1, IKKα, and IRF7 is recruited to the MyD88-IRAK4-TRAF6 complex. IRF7 is phosphorylated by IRAK1 and IKKα, forms a dimer, and translocates into the nuclei to express IFNα and IFNβ genes. IRF1 is also recruited to the MyD88-IRAK4-TRAF6 complex and participates in TLR7- and 9-mediated production of IL-12 p35, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and IFNβ. Unc93B, a twelve-pass membrane protein local-ized to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), is required for the activation of signaling pathways triggered by TLR3, 7, and 9.
(B) RIG-I like RNA helicase signaling. After recognition of viral RNA, retinoic acid-inducible gene-I (RIG-I) and Mda5 recruit IFNβ promoter stimulator-1 (IPS-1, also known as MAVS, Cardif, and VISA) via CARD-CARD (caspase recruitment domain) interaction. IPS-1 is localized to mitochondria and acts as an adaptor that links RIG-I-like RNA helicase (RLH) and the TRAF3 complex, which subsequently activates IRF3 and IRF7 in a TBK1- and IKKi-dependent manner. IPS-1 also interacts with the Fas-associated death domain protein (FADD), which is required for the activation of IRF3 and NFκB. FADD interacts with and activates caspase-10 (Casp-10) and Casp-8, driving NFκB activation.
(C) NOD-like receptor signaling. Nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain 1 (NOD1, also known as CARD4) and NOD2 (also known as CARD15) detect PGN-derived molecules diaminopimelic acid (DAP) and muramyl dipeptide (MDP), respectively, and recruit RIP2 (also known as RICK or CARDIAK) to activate NFκB. NOD2 also recruits CARD9 to facilitate the MAPK pathway. MDP is also detected by NACHT-LRR-PYD-containing protein 3 (NALP3, also known as cryopyrin or PYPAF1), which forms an inflammasome along with ASC (apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a CARD) and Casp-1, inducing the processing of pro-IL-1β and pro-IL-18 that results in the release of IL-1β and IL-18, respectively. Bacterial RNA, toxin, monosodium urate crystal (MSU), ATP, or infection with Listeria or Staphylococcus trig-gers IL-1β and IL-18 releases via the NALP3 inflammsome. Detection of flagellin released into cytosol following Legionella infection is dependent on IL-1β-converting enzyme protease-activating factor (IPAF, also known as CLAN or CARD12) and neuronal apoptosis inhibitor protein 5 (NAIP5, also known as Birc1e). IPAF also partici-pates in the recognition of Salmonella . IPAF and NAIP5 trigger Casp-1 activation as well as cell death. NALP1b-mediated Casp-1 activation is linked to susceptibility of mouse macrophages to lethal toxin of Bacillus anthracis.
(D) Lectin signaling. C-type lectin Dectin-1 binds to β-glucan found in fungal cell wall components to activate tyrosine kinase Syk, which leads to the activation of CARD9. Activated CARD9 forms a complex with Bcl-10 and MALT1 to activate NFκB.
(E) Unknown pathway. Double-stranded (ds)DNA released by DNA viruses, bacteria, and damaged host cells trigger induction of IFN β via TBK1/IKKi-dependent mechanisms.
(F) Negative regulators. An E3 ubiquitin ligase Triad3A downregulates TLR expression, and members the of IL-1 receptor family, SIGIRR and ST2L, and a leucine-rich repeat (LRR)-containing cell-surface molecule RP105 inhibit TLR signaling (1). The function of MyD88 is blocked by a short form of MyD88 termed MyD88s (2), and the function of TRIF is suppressed by a TIR-domain-containing protein SARM and tyrosine phosphatase SHP2 (3). Suppressor of cytokine signaling 1 (SOCS1) mediates TIRAP degradation (4). Activation of IRAK4 is inhibited by IRAK-M, splicing variants of IRAK1 (IRAK1c) and IRAK2 (IRAK2c, IRAK2d), and Toll-interacting protein (Tollip)
(5). Oligomerization and ubiquitination of TRAF6 are suppressed by β-arrestin and A20, respectively (6). IRF4 prevents a recruitment of IRF5 to the receptor complex
(7) and PI3K negatively regulates the MAPK pathway (8). PIN1 mediates degradation of IRF3 to terminate type I IFN responses (9), and ATF3 and the nuclear hormone receptors such as PPARγ and glucocorticoid receptor (GR) suppress expression of NFκB target genes (10). Casp-1 activation is negatively regulated by Pyrin and CARD-containing proteins such as Casp-12, CARD only protein (COP, also known as Pseudo-ICE), ICEBERG, and inhibitory CARD (INCA) (11).Abbreviations
IRF , interferon regulatory factor
MAL, MyD88-adaptor-like
MAVS, mitochondrial antiviral signaling
PYD, pyrin domain
PYPAF1, Pyrin-containing Apaf-1-like protein 1
RICK, RIP-like interacting caspase-like apoptosis-regulatory protein kinase
TANK, TRAF family member-associated NFκB activator
RefeRences
Akira, S., Uematsu, S., and Takeuchi, O. (2006). Pathogen recognition and innate immunity. Cell 124, 783–801.
Fritz, J.H., Ferrero, R.L., Philpott, D.J., and Girardin, S.E. (2006). Nod-like proteins in immunity, inflammation and disease. Nat. Immunol. 7, 1250–1257.Honda, K., Takaoka, A., and Taniguchi, T. (2006). Type I interferon gene induction by the interferon regulatory factor family of transcription factors. Immunity 25, 349–360.Ishii, K.J., and Akira, S. (2006). Innate immune recognition of, and regulation by, DNA. Trends Immunol. 27, 525–532.
Kawai, T., and Akira, S. (2006). Innate immune recognition of viral infection. Nat. Immunol. 7, 131–137.
Mariathasan, S., and Monack, D.M. (2007). Inflammasome adaptors and sensors: Intracellular regulators of infection and inflammation. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 7, 31–40.Meylan, E., and Tschopp, J. (2006). Toll-like receptors and RNA helicases: Two parallel ways to trigger antiviral responses. Mol. Cell 22, 561–569.Meylan, E., Tschopp, J., and Karin, M. (2006). Intracellular pattern recognition receptors in the host response. Nature 442, 39–44.Ogura, Y., Sutterwala, F.S., and Flavell, R.A. (2006). The inflammasome: First line of the immune response to cell stress. Cell 126, 659–662.West, A.P., Koblansky, A.A., and Ghosh, S. (2006). Recognition and signaling by toll-like receptors. Annu. Rev. Cell Dev. Biol. 22, 409–437.1024.e1 Cell 129, June 1, 2007 2007 Elsevier Inc. DOI 10.1016/j.cell.2007.05.017
SnapShot: Pattern-Recognition Receptors
Taro Kawai and Shizuo AkiraResearch Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
(A) Toll-like receptor signaling. Toll-like receptor (TLR) 3 recognizes polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid (poly IC), whereas TLR4 recognizes lipopolysaccharide (LPS). TLR2 recog-nizes various components such as lipoprotein and peptidoglycan (PGN). TLR5 detects flagellin. TLR7 and TLR9 detect single-stranded (ss)RNA and CpG DNA, respectively. Each TLR recruits a distinct set of Toll/interleukin-1 receptor (TIR) domain-containing adaptor molecules such as myeloid differentiation primary response gene 88 (MyD88), TIR-containing adaptor protein (TIRAP, also known as MAL), TIR-containing adaptor-inducing IFNβ (TRIF, also known as TICAM1) and TRIF-related adaptor molecule (TRAM, also known as TICAM2). TLR3 uses TRIF, and TLR5, 7, and 9 use MyD88. TLR2 uses MyD88 and TIRAP, and TLR4 uses MyD88, TIRAP, TRIF, and TRAM. MyD88 binds to inter-leukin-1 receptor-associated kinase 4 (IRAK4) and TRAF6. TRIF binds receptor-interacting protein 1 (RIP1) and TRAF6. TRAF6 forms a complex with Ubc13, Uev1A, and ECSIT (evolutionarily conserved signaling intermediate in Toll/IL-1R pathways) to activate a complex containing transforming growth factor-β-activated kinase 1 (TAK1), TAK1-binding protein 1 (TAB1), TAB2, and TAB3. TAK1 activates IκB kinase (IKK) complex consisting of IKKα, IKKβ, and Nemo (also known as IKKγ), which results in the phosphorylation and proteasomal degradation of IκB proteins and the release of a transcription factor NFκB to the nucleus to regulate expression of inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα). TAK1 simultaneously activates the MAPK (JNK, p38, and ERK) pathway, leading to activation of AP-1 that controls expression of inflammatory cytokines. TRIF recruits TRAF3, which interacts with IKK-related kinases, TANK-binding kinase 1 (TBK1, also known as T2K and NAK), and IKKi (also known as IKK ε). These kinases, together with adaptors TANK and NAP1, catalyze the phosphorylation of IRF3. Phosphorylated IRF3 forms a dimer, translocates into the nuclei, binds to DNA, and regulates the expression of interferon β (IFNβ) in collaboration with AP-1 and NFκB. IRF3 is also activated by phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase (PI3K), which interacts with TLR3. In TLR2, 4, 5, 7, and 9 signaling, IRF5 is recruited to the MyD88-IRAK4-TRAF6 complex, then translocates into the nuclei to control the induction of inflammatory cytokines. In TLR7 and 9 signaling, a signaling complex consisting of TRAF3, osteopontin (OPN), IRAK1, IKKα, and IRF7 is recruited to the MyD88-IRAK4-TRAF6 complex. IRF7 is phosphorylated by IRAK1 and IKKα, forms a dimer, and translocates into the nuclei to express IFNα and IFNβ genes. IRF1 is also recruited to the MyD88-IRAK4-TRAF6 complex and participates in TLR7- and 9-mediated production of IL-12 p35, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and IFNβ. Unc93B, a twelve-pass membrane protein local-ized to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), is required for the activation of signaling pathways triggered by TLR3, 7, and 9.
(B) RIG-I like RNA helicase signaling. After recognition of viral RNA, retinoic acid-inducible gene-I (RIG-I) and Mda5 recruit IFNβ promoter stimulator-1 (IPS-1, also known as MAVS, Cardif, and VISA) via CARD-CARD (caspase recruitment domain) interaction. IPS-1 is localized to mitochondria and acts as an adaptor that links RIG-I-like RNA helicase (RLH) and the TRAF3 complex, which subsequently activates IRF3 and IRF7 in a TBK1- and IKKi-dependent manner. IPS-1 also interacts with the Fas-associated death domain protein (FADD), which is required for the activation of IRF3 and NFκB. FADD interacts with and activates caspase-10 (Casp-10) and Casp-8, driving NFκB activation.
(C) NOD-like receptor signaling. Nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain 1 (NOD1, also known as CARD4) and NOD2 (also known as CARD15) detect PGN-derived molecules diaminopimelic acid (DAP) and muramyl dipeptide (MDP), respectively, and recruit RIP2 (also known as RICK or CARDIAK) to activate NFκB. NOD2 also recruits CARD9 to facilitate the MAPK pathway. MDP is also detected by NACHT-LRR-PYD-containing protein 3 (NALP3, also known as cryopyrin or PYPAF1), which forms an inflammasome along with ASC (apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a CARD) and Casp-1, inducing the processing of pro-IL-1β and pro-IL-18 that results in the release of IL-1β and IL-18, respectively. Bacterial RNA, toxin, monosodium urate crystal (MSU), ATP, or infection with Listeria or Staphylococcus trig-gers IL-1β and IL-18 releases via the NALP3 inflammsome. Detection of flagellin released into cytosol following Legionella infection is dependent on IL-1β-converting enzyme protease-activating factor (IPAF, also known as CLAN or CARD12) and neuronal apoptosis inhibitor protein 5 (NAIP5, also known as Birc1e). IPAF also partici-pates in the recognition of Salmonella . IPAF and NAIP5 trigger Casp-1 activation as well as cell death. NALP1b-mediated Casp-1 activation is linked to susceptibility of mouse macrophages to lethal toxin of Bacillus anthracis.
(D) Lectin signaling. C-type lectin Dectin-1 binds to β-glucan found in fungal cell wall components to activate tyrosine kinase Syk, which leads to the activation of CARD9. Activated CARD9 forms a complex with Bcl-10 and MALT1 to activate NFκB.
(E) Unknown pathway. Double-stranded (ds)DNA released by DNA viruses, bacteria, and damaged host cells trigger induction of IFN β via TBK1/IKKi-dependent mechanisms.
(F) Negative regulators. An E3 ubiquitin ligase Triad3A downregulates TLR expression, and members the of IL-1 receptor family, SIGIRR and ST2L, and a leucine-rich repeat (LRR)-containing cell-surface molecule RP105 inhibit TLR signaling (1). The function of MyD88 is blocked by a short form of MyD88 termed MyD88s (2), and the function of TRIF is suppressed by a TIR-domain-containing protein SARM and tyrosine phosphatase SHP2 (3). Suppressor of cytokine signaling 1 (SOCS1) mediates TIRAP degradation (4). Activation of IRAK4 is inhibited by IRAK-M, splicing variants of IRAK1 (IRAK1c) and IRAK2 (IRAK2c, IRAK2d), and Toll-interacting protein (Tollip)
(5). Oligomerization and ubiquitination of TRAF6 are suppressed by β-arrestin and A20, respectively (6). IRF4 prevents a recruitment of IRF5 to the receptor complex
(7) and PI3K negatively regulates the MAPK pathway (8). PIN1 mediates degradation of IRF3 to terminate type I IFN responses (9), and ATF3 and the nuclear hormone receptors such as PPARγ and glucocorticoid receptor (GR) suppress expression of NFκB target genes (10). Casp-1 activation is negatively regulated by Pyrin and CARD-containing proteins such as Casp-12, CARD only protein (COP, also known as Pseudo-ICE), ICEBERG, and inhibitory CARD (INCA) (11).Abbreviations
IRF , interferon regulatory factor
MAL, MyD88-adaptor-like
MAVS, mitochondrial antiviral signaling
PYD, pyrin domain
PYPAF1, Pyrin-containing Apaf-1-like protein 1
RICK, RIP-like interacting caspase-like apoptosis-regulatory protein kinase
TANK, TRAF family member-associated NFκB activator
RefeRences
Akira, S., Uematsu, S., and Takeuchi, O. (2006). Pathogen recognition and innate immunity. Cell 124, 783–801.
Fritz, J.H., Ferrero, R.L., Philpott, D.J., and Girardin, S.E. (2006). Nod-like proteins in immunity, inflammation and disease. Nat. Immunol. 7, 1250–1257.Honda, K., Takaoka, A., and Taniguchi, T. (2006). Type I interferon gene induction by the interferon regulatory factor family of transcription factors. Immunity 25, 349–360.Ishii, K.J., and Akira, S. (2006). Innate immune recognition of, and regulation by, DNA. Trends Immunol. 27, 525–532.
Kawai, T., and Akira, S. (2006). Innate immune recognition of viral infection. Nat. Immunol. 7, 131–137.
Mariathasan, S., and Monack, D.M. (2007). Inflammasome adaptors and sensors: Intracellular regulators of infection and inflammation. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 7, 31–40.Meylan, E., and Tschopp, J. (2006). Toll-like receptors and RNA helicases: Two parallel ways to trigger antiviral responses. Mol. Cell 22, 561–569.Meylan, E., Tschopp, J., and Karin, M. (2006). Intracellular pattern recognition receptors in the host response. Nature 442, 39–44.Ogura, Y., Sutterwala, F.S., and Flavell, R.A. (2006). The inflammasome: First line of the immune response to cell stress. Cell 126, 659–662.West, A.P., Koblansky, A.A., and Ghosh, S. (2006). Recognition and signaling by toll-like receptors. Annu. Rev. Cell Dev. Biol. 22, 409–437.1024.e1 Cell 129, June 1, 2007 2007 Elsevier Inc. DOI 10.1016/j.cell.2007.05.017