EST Translation
Reference
1. 谢小苑 科技英语翻译技巧与实践 国防工业出版社 2008.4
2. 杨跃 马刚 实用科技英语翻译研究 西安交通大学出版社 2008.9
3. 司显柱 曾建平 英译汉教程 北京大学出版社 2006.9
4. 方梦之 毛忠明 英汉 汉英应用翻译教程 上海外语教育出版社 2005.8
5. 王卫平 潘丽蓉 英语科技文献的语言特点与翻译 上海交通大学出版社 2009.3
6. 李建军 英汉应用文互译 上海交通大学出版社 2008.1
7. 范武邱 实用科技英语翻讲座 外文出版社 2001.1
8. 冯志杰 汉英科技翻译指要 中国对外翻译出版公司 2004.10
9. 陶友兰 查国生 研究生英语翻译教程 复旦大学出版社 2007.9
10. 曾道明 陶友兰 研究生英语英汉互译翻译教程 复旦大学出版社 2006.12
11. 连淑能 英汉对比研究 高等教育出版社
12. 戴云 研究生英语译写教程 机械工业出版社 2007.1
13. 方梦之 范武邱 科技翻译教程 上海外语教育出版社 2008.6.
14. 严轶伦 薛荣 夏蓓洁 新理念英译汉教程 中国科学技术出版社2007.9
15. 宋天锡编著. 翻译新概念 英汉互译实用教程[M].北京市：国防工业出版社.2011
16. 顾振海等主编.21世纪医学共核英语翻译教程[M].南京市：南京大学出版社.2001.
17. 傅勇林，唐跃勤主编. 科技翻译[M].北京市：外语教学与研究出版社.2012.
18. 李长栓著. 非文学翻译[M].北京市：外语教学与研究出版社.2009.
本课程的性质：
本课程立足于普通科技英语，非专业英语，因为专业英语存在大量专业术语，专业知识，以及特殊的思维逻辑。了解科技英语语言，了解其词汇概念，语法体系和文体特征，可以帮助我们进行专业英语的阅读、翻译和写作。
本课程服务于非专业英语翻译学生，教学内容更多涉及以“药”为依托的经济贸易、社会问题、科学技术发展、科普知识介绍、医药卫生、时事政治等。
本课程的重点：
本课程的重点不是微观技巧的阐述，而是培养真正的翻译理念和用英语获取专业知识的能力。训练的目的不在于学生学会多少专业术语的翻译，不在于单纯提高学生的语言能力，而是通过一定数量的翻译练习掌握翻译的原则和技巧。
翻译是一个不断完善的过程，单靠教师的讲座和译文赏析，学不会翻译。
翻译也没有标准答案，学生需通过调查研究，自己找到问题的解决方法。
本课程学习步骤：
理论讲解与翻译实践相结合，根据课堂理论讲解完成翻译练习。对于课后练习的修改，教师首先指出问题，课堂进行讲解，学生再通过对照其他学生的译文，拓宽思路，再次对自己的译文进行修改，达到提高翻译能力和水平。
本课程的理论阐述内容：
1. 英汉语言对比与翻译
2. 科技英语句法特征与翻译
3. 科技英语词汇特征与翻译
授课方式（method of teaching）: lecture and discussion
课时（semester hour）: 16
考评（assessment ）: 40% formative assessment + 60%final exam
Weeks and Themes
1. on hypotaxis and parataxis
2. on difference in sentence order
3. on statics and dynamics on nominal style and verbal style
4. on amplification
5. on omission
6. on inanimate subject and passive voice
7. on relative clause and long sentences
8. on contrast between complete translation and varied translation
General Introduction to Translation of EST
科技英语翻译介绍
翻译的定义：
翻译是把用一种语言表达的信息准确通畅地转换为另一种语言的活动或行为。
翻译是桥梁，交际的质量甚或成功与否，在很大程度上取决于翻译这座桥梁。
翻译理论：
（1） 玄奘：“既须求真，又须喻俗。”
（2） 严复：“译事三难：信、达、雅。”
（3） 20世纪30年代：“信、顺”
（4） 新中国：“忠实、通顺”，前者主要对原文作者负责，后者主要对译文读者负责。
（5） 傅雷：“神似”
（6） 钱钟书：“化境”
翻译的标准：
1）准确规范 2）通顺易懂 3）简洁明晰
翻译的手段：
工作方式：
口译 interpretation
笔译 translation
机器翻译 machine translation
处理方式：
全译、摘译、编译、缩译、改译等
翻译的对象
文学、科技、政论、新闻、经贸、法律、应用文等
翻译的方法
直译 literal translation
意译 free translation
影响翻译的几对矛盾
1) 忠实原文与照顾译文读者之间的矛盾
2) 原文与译文语言系统之间的矛盾
语音差异：四声与轻重音；音素象征意义。
词汇差异：词义的涵盖范围；独有的事物。
句法差异：汉语“意合”，英语“形合”
3）原文文化与译文文化之间的矛盾
语用习惯、文化联想、文化特色等
Exercise ：
1. Translate the following phrases:
红茶
红豆
红糖
红利
红颜
红娘
红眼病（眼红别人）
红白喜事
红颜祸水
满面红光
她的眼圈红了.
2. Research the difference in the implied meanings of idioms, colors, metaphors of plants or animals.
English vs. Chinese: Ten Pairs of Features
①Synthetic vs．Analytic
English is a synthetic language marked with inflexions(曲折变化形式) ，while
Chinese is an analytic language without any inflection，which is usuallv implied in the context or explicitly shown in such words as“着、了、过”etc ．For example：
During the wartime ，years like these would have meant certain death for many
people. Many would have become beggars and others would have been compelled to sell their children．
．
②Compact vs．Diffusive
English sentences are compact tightly combined with connectives or prepositions，
while Chinese is diffused，that is，loose in structure．
Now the integrated circuit has reduced by many times the size of the computer of
which it forms a part，thus creating a new generation of portable minicomputer．
现在集成电路成了计算机的组成部分，使计算机的体积大大缩小，从而产生了
新一代的便携式微型计算机。
A notion has taken hold in the US to the effect that the only people who should be
encouraged to bring children into the world are those who can afford them．
在美国有一个根深蒂固的观点，说是只有对那些抚养得起子女的人，才应鼓励
其生育。
③Hypotactic vs．Paratactic
In English clauses or phrases are coordinated with or subordinated to one another
syntactically while in Chinese they are placed one after another without coordinating connectives ．
The many colors of a rainbow range from red on the outside to violet on the inside．
彩虹有多种颜色，外圈红，内圈紫。
He had a disconcerting habit of expressing contradictory ideas in rapid succession．
他有一种令人难堪的习惯：一会儿一个看法，自相矛盾，变化无常。
④Complex vs. Simplex
English sentences are long and complex ，while Chinese sentences are short and
simple ．For example：
Many man-made substances are replacing certain natural materials because either
the quality of the natural product can not meet our ever-increasing requirement，or ，
more often，because the physical properties of the synthetic substance．which is the common name for man．made materials，have been chosen．and even emphasized，
so that it would be Of the greatest use in the fields in which it is to be applied．
人造材料通称为合成材料。许多人造材料正在代替某些天然材料，这或者是由
于天然物产的数量不能满足日益增长的需要，或者是由于人们选择了合成材料的
一些物理性质并加以突出而造成的。因此，合成材料在其应用领域将具有极大的
用途。
⑤Impersonal vs．Personal
There are more impersonal structures in English than in Chinese，as shown in the
following examples：
What has happened to you? 你出了什么事儿啦?
An idea suddenly struck me． 我突然想到一个主意。
Not a sound reached our ears． 我们没有听到任何声音。
A great elation overcame them． 他们欣喜若狂。
The truth finally dawned on her． 她最终明白了真相。
⑥ Passive vs．Active
As we have mentioned in the previous units，the passive voice is extensively used
in English，while Chinese sentences are usually active．
A few years ago it was thought unusual that programs could ever be called up by
viewers to be displayed on their TV screens at home．
几年前人们还以为，观众居然能够打电话要求在自己家里的电视屏幕上播出节
目是一种稀罕的事情。
⑦ Static vs．Dynamic
English is static，with agent nouns being frequently used to replace verbs，while
Chinese is dynamic，with more verbs being used in a single sentence．
He is a good eater and a good sleeper．
他能吃又能睡。
You must be a very bad learner；or else you must be going to a very bad teacher．
你一定很不善于学习，要不然就是教你的人很不会教。
⑧ Abstract vs．Concrete
In expressing the same idea English seems more abstract while Chinese ，more
concrete ．
The absence of intelligence is an indication of satisfactory developments．
没有消息即表明有令人满意的进展。
A high degree of carelessness，pre-operative and post-operative，on the part of some
of the hospital staff，took place．
医院某些医护人员在手术前后都非常粗心。
⑨ Indirect VS．Direct
Some English sentences seem to be indirect in affirmation while Chinese Sentences
are straightforward．
I couldn’t feel better． 我觉得身体好极了。
I couldn’t agree with you more． 我太赞成你的看法了。
He can’t see you quick enough． 他很想尽快和你见面。
If you have a car，you are independent of trains and buses．
如果你有小汽车，就不用去坐火车或挤公共汽车。
⑩ Substitutive VS．Repetitive
Generally speaking，there are not use so many repetitions in English as in Chinese．
．
He hated failure；he had conquered it all his life，risen above it，and despised it in
Exercise ：
Translate the following passage into Chinese:
The world seems increasingly divided into those who favor genetically modified (GM) foods and those who fear them. Advocates assert that growing genetically altered crops can be kinder to the environment and that eating foods from those plants is perfectly safe. And, they say, genetic engineering －which can induce plants to grow in poor soils or to produce more nutritious foods－will soon become an essential tool for helping to feed the world's burgeoning population. Skeptics contend that GM crops could pose unique risks to the environment and to health －risks too troubling to accept placidly. Taking that view, many European countries are restricting the planting and importation of GM agricultural products.
Hypotaxis vs Parataxis
形合vs 意合
形合，指语言的词语与分句之间用自身的形式手段，表达语法意义和逻辑关系
意合，指语言的词语与分句之间不用语言形式手段连接，句子的语法意义和逻辑关系通过
词语或分句的含义来表达
转换：在进行汉英翻译时需在英语译句中补充各种形式手段，如形形色色的虚词、关联词、
主语、人称代词、物主代词、介词、冠词、系词等，将语法意义和逻辑关系表达出来。在进行英汉则常常将英语的长句、紧句化为汉语的短句、松句。
例句：The isolation of the rural world, because of distance and the lack of transport facilities, is 译文：由于距离远，又缺乏交通工具，使农村社会与外界隔绝，而这种隔绝，又由于通讯
工具不足而变得更加严重。
评析：汉语五个小短句，英语一个长句由五个介词/介词短语连接九个名词组成。
例句：我公司厂房标准，设备齐全，技术力量雄厚，质量精良。
译文：Our company has standard production premises complete with full lines of equipment. top quality.
评析：汉语四个并列成分，一个层次，英语分两句表达，每个英文句子有主次层次之分。
1. 氯是一种腐蚀性气体，对许多金属有侵蚀作用，如吸入，可刺激鼻、喉粘膜。
2. 单个血细胞通过血浆在体内运行，时间多达120天，最后被冲到循环系统的垃圾场—— 脾脏。
3. 烤烟、苹果、羊毛和甘薯是延安的四大农产品，年产量3.12亿元，占农业总产值的52.5%.
4. 可以预言，钛材在飞机或各种飞行器上的应用将会与日俱增，并且在其他工业中的应用也会扩大。
5. If rise of blood pressure occurs with some other disease, it is called secondary hypertension.
6. Change of information, if any, concerning the contents of this section will be found in the appendix at the end of this book.
7. 一种微生物能够破坏另一种微生物，这种现象最早是巴斯德发现的，他指出这可以用到
医疗上去。
思考题：
1. 英语形合的形式手段有哪些？
2. 汉语意合的特点是什么？
Difference in the focus of a sentence
英汉句子重心的差异
汉语：由先到后，由因到果，由假设到推论，先叙事后总结，符合汉语“末尾焦点”的语言习
惯和“从众归一”的思维方式。
英语：先表示个人的感受、态度或是首先就事情本身做出评论，然后再叙述事情的来龙去脉。
例1: 他们培育出的细胞看上去像胚胎干细胞，这的确令人惊讶。
例2 : 1968年12月阿波罗8号宇宙飞船上那些想家的宇航员们在太空拍下了整个地球的彩
照，此后在1970年4月很快就出现了第一个地球日，这绝非是历史的偶然。
例3 药物在体内和分子靶位相互作用，因此，为了得到预期的药效，选择正确的靶位非常重要。
例4. 由于贵国政府的提议，才得以这样快地重新实现访问，这使我感到特别高兴。
例5：由于现代世界的发展和近年来在单门学科狭窄前沿上的研究进展，出现一些极其复杂的难题，单凭一两个人的力量是无法对它们进行透彻研究的。
例6：这种小型热带鱼由于具有自行修复受损和患病的眼部细胞的独特能力，长期以来一直为科学家所关注。
例7：不努力就不会成功。
例8：想到要出国深造，他激动不已。
例9：如蒙早日寄来样品或产品册，将不胜感激。
例10：如能尽早回复，我将非常感谢。
讨论：
1. In practice, the selected interval thickness is usually a compromise between the need for a thin interval to maximize the resolution (分辨率) and a thick interval to minimize the error.
2. 在自然界找不到处于游离状态的铝，因为这种金属总是和其他元素结合在一起，最普遍的是跟氧结合（铝和氧都有很强的亲和力）。所以，铝直到十九世纪才被人类发现。（亲和力 affinity ）
3. It was to test the effects of mercury on the heart that the two new studies compared the mercury levels in clippings from toenails, where heavy metals tend to be deposited.
Word Order
英汉语序差异
various sizes) in a sentence. For most languages, basic word order can be defined in terms of the finite verb (V) and its arguments, the subject (S) and object (O). The overwhelming majority of the world's languages are either SVO or SOV , with a much smaller but still significant portion using VSO word order.
英语与汉语在民族思维习惯及语言形态上是有同有异，在基本语序上是大同小异。“同”的是主语、谓语和宾语的位置，“异”的是定语和状语的位置。
1．定语位置的比较
例：1. 人体T 细胞白血病病毒→
2. 国际经济新秩序 →
3. 第五届全国化学生物学学术会议→
4. National Academy of Sciences →
5. Overview of GMP, Quality System and Compliance in the US→ 6. common side effects of the chemotherapeutic drugs used to treat cancer →
2. 状语位置的比较
例：7. 这个通信卫星可以在任何时间向任何地点有效地传递语音信号和数据信号。
8.
9. 中国南京江宁区龙眠大道639号
11. The temperature is between 20--25℃
12. 无论处于固态、液态或气态，水的化学成份都保持不变。
For discussion:
1. SELDI-TOF-MS is a rapid and sensitive proteomic technique that has been applied to identify biomarkers in various diseases.
2. 由于甜椒中的亲脂性成分，用极性洗脱液洗脱的甜椒样品表现出更高的生物活性。
3. 该项准则随后成为了全球公认的评价口服固体剂型均匀度的非药典测量方法。
Static vs Dynamic
动态、静态
1. 动态与静态
客观现实中的一个事件，人们可以用动态来表述，也可以用静态来表述，表述的角度不同便构成了动态句型和静态句型。语法学家Quirk 指出，总的来讲，名词自然地被定义为“静态”，因为它们所指的实体是稳定的；相反，动词自然地被定义为“动态”：动词适合表示动作、活动，暂时的或变化的情况。
英语倾向于多用名词，名词的使用频率大大高于动词，所以英语句子以静态叙述占优。汉语动词用得多，所以汉语句子以动态叙述占优。
例1. There was a predominance of weeds in the deserted garden.
例2. In the next 15 to 20 years, China is well-positioned to join the ranks of the world‟s high
income countries. That‟s a transition that only a handful of countries have made — and, sadly, many have failed.
例3. …government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth. 例4. I tried vainly to put the pieces together.
例5. 地球绕轴自转，引起昼夜变化。
例6. 采用这种新装置可以大大降低废品率。
例7. 为使物体克服惯性而运动，就需要一个力。
例8. 许多学贯中西的大师的经历说明，学不好母语的人，也不可能真正学好外语。
2. 科技英语中的名词化形式(nominalization)
英语的静态特征具有多方面的表现：从词法上讲，英语常用抽象名词、动词的同源名词、同源形容词、介词、副词等来表达动态含义。名词化使用可使表达简洁，避免犯时态、语态、性数一致等语法错误。对比以下各组句子：
1. If you insert a slash, you can rectify this fault.
Rectification of this fault is achieved by insertion of a slash.
2. Hypersonic speeds are quite commonly attained now.
The attainment of hypersonic speeds is now quite common.
3. If the thickness of the lagging is increased, it will reduce the heat losses.
An increase in the thickness of the lagging will reduce the heat losses.
4. While it is being compacted, considerable lateral pressure is exerted by the concrete. Considerable lateral pressure is exerted by the concrete during compaction.
Exercise:
1. The incubation period is the time that elapsed between the entrance of the microorganism and the manifestation of the disease.
2. Laser is one of the most sensational developments in recent years, because of its applicability to many fields of science and its adaptability to practical uses.
3. There can be few more depressing stories in the entire history of man‟s exploration of nature than the destruction of the unfortunate great whales.
Amplification
增词
英汉词语语言由于表达方式不尽相同，翻译时既可能要将词类加以转换，又可能要在词量上加以增减。增词法就是在翻译时按意义上（或修辞法）和句法上的需要增加一些词来更忠实通顺地表达原文的思想内容。当然不是无中生有地随意增词，而是增加原文中虽无其词但有其意的一些词从而使得译文在语法、语言形式上符合译文习惯并在文化背景、语言联想方面与原文一致起来，使得译文与原文在内容和形式等方面对等起来。
1. After the football match, he‟s got an important meeting.
2. He said he‟d come to the discussion.
3. Her job was sweeping, scratching, cleaning.
4. I could knit when I was seven.
5. This typewriter is indeed cheap and fine.
6. Because of its reliability and simplicity evaporation is often applied on a large scale,, normally using steam as the heat source.
7. Oxidation will make iron and steel rusty.
8. During an EL Nino the pressures over Australia, Indonesia and the Philippines are higher than normal, which results in dry conditions or even droughts.
9. Were there no gravity, there would be no air around the earth..
10. The sun warms the earth, which makes it possible for plants to grow.
11. The frequency, wave length, and speed of sound are closely related.
12. Human beings have not yet been able to make an element by combining protons, neutrons and electrons.
13. Air is a mixture of gases.
14. Things in the universe are changing all the time.
15. Plastic bowls marked microwavable are probably safer than those that aren‟t.
16. Matter can be changes into energy and energy into matter.
17. The earth‟s population is doubling; the environment is being damaged.
18. The chief effects of electric currents are the magnetic, heating and chemical effects.
Omission
减词
由于英语和汉语在句法结构上的差异，遣词造句上的不同，英语句子中需要的词，汉语句子中不一定需要，如果译出来就会累赘。比如，英语中冠词、介词、连词、代词使用很广，汉语中没有冠词，介词、连词、代词的使用也不是很多，所以英语中冠词、介词、连词、代词译成汉语时常常省略。
From English into Chinese
1. With an equation we can work with an unknown quantity.
2. A teacher should have patience in his work.
3. This machine is in good condition.
4. There are many kinds of bacteria which vary in shape and in size.
5. Pure water freezes at 0℃ and boils at 100℃ under standard pressure.
6. When the pressure gets low, the boiling point becomes low.
From Chinese into English
1. 由于失业率增高，美元币值下降，股票市场处于困境之中，经济问题将是总统所面临的最严峻的考验。
2. 你参加过花样滑冰项目的比赛吗？
3. 阳光会破坏牛奶一类食品的维生素成分。
4 我们已经从其他国家有计划有选择地进口了一些成套设备。
5 应探索各种途径和手段促进儿童语言的发展。
6. 回顾过去病史, 未发现感染反复发作。
7. 今年我们在引进工作方面又取得了重大成绩。
8. 我们积极支持生态农业。
9. 抗氧化剂是某种存在于食品中的化学物质。
10. 这台较复杂的电脑又能设计出一台更为复杂的电脑，而且还可以一代代更加复杂精密地开发、研制下去。
Negation
句意反译
In C-E translation a positive sentence may be translated into a negative sentence, or vice versa. This is a kind of perspective shift. Negation may make the version more fluent and expressive. 民族不同，思维方法以及用来反映思维的方式往往也不同。例如，英语民族从正面表达的内容，汉语民族可以、有时甚至必须从反面表达。如果译文的肯定否定与原文相反，或者改从相反的视点来表达。译文中一切与原文表达方式不一致、相矛盾或相反的情形，都称为“反译”。
含有否定意义的词汇：
1）否定词：not 、no 以及un-、dis-、-less 等否定词缀
●
●
2）否定意义的动词
lack, fail ，stop, prevent, ignore, refuse，avoid, miss, cease
●
●
●
3）否定意义的介词
● It is
repair ．
●
● ．
● Radio telescopes have been able to probe space
the range of ordinary optical telescopes ．
●
● silver ．
● The molecular formula, C6H14, does not show anything 分子式
From positive into negative
肯定译为否定
1. There are many other energy sources in store.
2. In the high altitude snow and ice remain all year.
3. As rubber prevents electricity from passing through it, it is used as insulating material.
4. We have found your terms and conditions agreeable.
5. 这份说明书不够详尽。
6. 我们不应当再把海洋当成人类生活污水和工业污水的垃圾场了。
7. 精密仪器必须保持无尘。
8. 铁箱能使地球磁场影响不了指南针。
9. 我们无权签此合同。
10. 他们公司在产品的包装和宣传上明显比不上竞争对手。
From negative into positive
否定译为肯定
1. The study of genetics will never he so all encompassing as to gobble up every subject from
medicine to sociology.
2. The advantages of nano-structured materials do no end here.
3. Until recently geneticists were not interested in particular genes.
4. Don ‟t lose time in posting this letter.
5. No deposit will be refunded unless ticket produced.
6. It was suggested that such devices should be designed and produced without delay.
7. Ice is not as dense as water and it therefore floats.
8. These bacteria will not die until the temperature reaches 100℃.
9. Its importance can‟t be stressed too strongly.
10. We don‟t consider melting to be chemical changes.
11. The doctors do not expect that the patient with breast cancer will recover
12. One could not be too careful in a new neighborhood.
Impersonal vs Personal
物称与人称
西方哲学主张“人物分立”，即主客体分明，强调客观、重视理性。汉民族的传统思维注重主体意识，强调“天人合一”的哲学思想。这种思维差异在语言上体现为英语重物称，汉语重人称。英文常以物或抽象概念做主语，强调“物称主语”的重要性，倾向于以客观事实的形式表达所思所想。汉语经常用表“人”的词、词组、短语做主语，倾向以“人”为中心描绘客观事实。
1. Pork has priced itself out of his dish.
2. Space does not allow us to further analyze this problem here.
3. By now optimism had given way to doubt.
4. Aminophylline（氨茶碱）does not share the usual objection to vasodilators.
5. The exigency of the case admitted of no alternative.
6. It is known to us that bronchitis is a common disease.
7. “an increased level of anxiety disproportionate to the actu al risk,” says Jerrold Bushberg, who directs programs in health physics at the University of California at Davis. “
8. The resistance can be determined provided that the voltage and current are known．
9. Some things have been said here tonight that ought not to have been spoken.
10. 突然间我想到了一个主意。Suddenly I got an idea. → 物称主语句
11. 不同的人对食物持不同的态度。Different people have different attitudes towards food.
12. 人们一直认为植物病毒不会感染动物，反之亦然。
For discussion:
1. Friday started with a morning visit to the modern campus of the 22，000-student University of Michigan in nearby Ann Arbor ，where the Chinese table tennis team joined students in the cafeteria inn for lunch and later played an exhibition match.
2. There has been a striking continuous, but unexplained decline in the reported death rate of gastric carcinoma in the United States from 34 per 1,000,000 population in 1930 to 8 per 1,000,000 currently.
3. The journey from embryonated egg to the ligase chain reaction has embraced an enormous amount of work involving tissue cell culture, enzyme immunoassay, fluorescence, and molecular techniques.
Passive Voice
被动语态
Passive voice in English:
Why use passive voice?
The rationale for using the passive voice in scientific writing is that it achieves "an objective tone" —for example, by avoiding the first person.
Passive voice in Chinese：?
1. Qinghao has been used to treat malaria in China for over 2000 years.
2. These problems must be solved before the tests start.
3. Pain may be treated with drugs, physical measures or surgery.
4. The patient is questioned by a doctor about his present complaint and the date of the onset of the disease.
5. Several elements and compounds may be extracted directly form seawater.
6. While a current is flowing through a wire, the latter is being heated.
7. Weak magnetic fields are known to come from the human body.
8. Air resistance must be given careful consideration when the missile is to be designed.
9. It is claimed that soap powders pollute the water we drink.
10. 心脏往往被看作是人体最重要的器官。
11. 雄性Wistar 大鼠20只随机分为对照组和糖尿病组。
12. 本文以前没有发表过，目前也没有考虑投寄其他杂志发表。
For discussion:
1. Replication is normally carried out by the A, B, or C family polymerases with high fidelity
and high processivity.
2. The conflict between the urgent need for new antimicrobial agents against resistant bacteria in
clinic and less development of new antibiotics should be resolved by the cooperations among enterprises, government and institutions.
3. Although an association between migraine and chest pain has been described, an association
between migraine and coronary events has not been firmly established.
Translation of Chinese sentences without subject
汉语无主语句的英译
汉语重意合, 句式结构往往不依赖结构词, 而依靠句子本身的内在联系。汉语篇章中, 某些句子的主语常常省略，呈现了汉语句式中无主语句这一特点。而英语句子重形合, 其意义的表达往往依赖于句子之间的连接词, 句子结构主要采用主谓机制。英语的主语具有不可或缺性, 是谓语讨论或描写、叙述的对象。例：
他到家时已是凌晨两点了。
看菜吃饭，量体裁衣。
汉语无主语句可通过以下原则进行英译: (1)增添主语; (2)使用被动语态; (3)使用祈使句; (4)使用形式主语"it"; (5)使用"There be"句型。
例1：弄不好, 就会前功尽弃。
例2：要了解中国，可以有很多视角。
例3：学习先进, 才有可能赶超先进.
例4：与其说海洋把陆地分开，不如说海洋把陆地连在一起。
例5：从他家到公园很近。
例6：我的家乡冬天很少下雪。
例7：可以采用各种方法使温度下降。
例8：首先要保证产品的质量。
例9：操纵这些机器时必须小心。
例10：如果发现有链球菌，就需要再进行一个疗程的青霉素治疗。
例11：使用电子显微镜，能获得大得多的放大倍数。
例12：该项实验中肯定困难很多。
例13：没有顺利，无所谓困难；没有困难，也无所谓顺利。
例14：对母语是英语的人来说，根本不可能4个星期就学会汉语。
例15：已经决定几个月后进行生产。
例16：建议采用中国生产的设备。
例17：随信附上我们新开发产品的样品。
Long Sentence in EST
英语长句翻译
英语一方面可以利用介词短语、不定式短语、分词短语以及各种并列结构，组成很长的简单句，一方面可以使用相应的连接词或关系词，将适当的分句或小句组合成更长的长句结构，而且往往从句之中套着分句、分句之中又包含从句，形成环扣相连的长句结构。
汉语更注重意合，形式连接手段远不如英语那样种类繁多，语法关系主要通过语序体现，句子内容则基本上依据时间顺序和逻辑关系加以安排。在表达比较复杂的概念时，汉语常用一组分立的中短句、并列的散句或流水句。因此，总的说来，汉语句子一般要比英语句子简短，在翻译英语长句时，应按照汉语的造句常规，重新加以组合，以符合汉语表达的习惯传递原文意义。
顺译法、逆译法、分译法、插入法
例1： It was believed that perhaps during its existence inside the body of the mother, the growing
embryo becomes fixed on the sound of the heart beat; if this is so, then the discovery of this familiar sound after birth might have a calming effect on the infant, especially as it has just been thrust into a strange and frightening new world outside.
例2： Studies show that most doctors sincerely believe that the seriously ill patients do not want
to know the truth about their condition, and that informing them risking destroying their hope, so that they may recover more slowly, or deteriorate faster, perhaps even commit suicide.
例3： He had cleaned up those confusions which arose from different medicines that had been
given a same name and different names that had been given to the same substance.
例4：It was to test the effects of mercury on the heart that the two new studies compared the
mercury levels in clippings from toenails, where heavy metals tend to be deposited.
例5：What should doctors say, for example, to a 46-year-old man coming in a routine physical
checkup just before going on vacation with his family who, though he feels in perfect health, is found to have a form of cancer that will cause him to die within six months?
例6：There is no more difference, but there is the same kind of difference, between the mental
operations of a man of science and those of an ordinary person ，as there is between the operations and methods of a baker or of a butcher weighing out his goods in common scales ， and the operations of a chemist in performing a difficult and complex analysis by means of his balance and finely graded weights.
例7：This hope of “early discovery” of lung cancer followed by surgical cure, which currently
seems to be the most effective form of therapy, is often thwarted by diverse biology behaviors in the rate and direction of growth of cancer.
例8：Over the periods the snakes‟ saliva, a mild, digestive juice like our own, was converted into a
poison that defies analysis even today.
例9：But scientists hope stem cells can be used to grow a range of tissues, from brain tissue to
treat diseases such as Parkinson‟s, in which brain cells are destroyed, to juvenile diabetes, in which key cells in the pancreas die off.
Relative Clauses
定语从句
英汉两种语言的最基本的语序是SVO （subject + verb + object），但我们在翻译复杂句时，两种语言的语序所存在的差异则给翻译带来不少困难。定语在英汉两种语言中所处的位置就完全相反。中文修饰名词的成分常在名词前（左）边，称为Left Branching Direction (LBD)，英文的修饰性从句则恰在后（右）边，称为 Right Branching Direction (RBD)。这种差别使得译者在翻译时必须善于变通。定语从句翻译时的变通主要在于调整从句的类别，必须根据上下文、语境灵活处理。
合译法（前置法）：
3. Essential hypertension is the name given to the type of hypertension for which no cause can be found.
4. The chemicals that make metabolism possible come from the air we breathe, the water we drink, and the food we eat.
分译法：
5. The body consists of a large number of organs, each of which has its own particular function to perform.
6. Glycogen is stored in the liver, which is released as needed in the form of glucose.
7. Operations can be performed with acupuncture analgesia, which is a great contribution to the development of medical science.
8. The blood flows from the small arteries into the capillaries in which it gives up oxygen to the body cells and removes wastes from the tissues.
状语作用：
9. We know that a cat, whose eyes can take in many more rays of light than our eyes, can see clearly in the night.
10. The disease, which may occur at any age, is most frequent in early adult life.
11. Cancer should be suspected in persons who have any of these symptoms and signs for unaccountable causes and for an unreasonable period of time.
12. Third world countries export their mineral deposit and tropical agriculture products, which bring them desired foreign exchange.
融合法：
13. The purpose for which electricity is used is numerous.
14. Fortunately, there are some chemical fuels that are clean and smokeless.
EST Translation
Reference
1. 谢小苑 科技英语翻译技巧与实践 国防工业出版社 2008.4
2. 杨跃 马刚 实用科技英语翻译研究 西安交通大学出版社 2008.9
3. 司显柱 曾建平 英译汉教程 北京大学出版社 2006.9
4. 方梦之 毛忠明 英汉 汉英应用翻译教程 上海外语教育出版社 2005.8
5. 王卫平 潘丽蓉 英语科技文献的语言特点与翻译 上海交通大学出版社 2009.3
6. 李建军 英汉应用文互译 上海交通大学出版社 2008.1
7. 范武邱 实用科技英语翻讲座 外文出版社 2001.1
8. 冯志杰 汉英科技翻译指要 中国对外翻译出版公司 2004.10
9. 陶友兰 查国生 研究生英语翻译教程 复旦大学出版社 2007.9
10. 曾道明 陶友兰 研究生英语英汉互译翻译教程 复旦大学出版社 2006.12
11. 连淑能 英汉对比研究 高等教育出版社
12. 戴云 研究生英语译写教程 机械工业出版社 2007.1
13. 方梦之 范武邱 科技翻译教程 上海外语教育出版社 2008.6.
14. 严轶伦 薛荣 夏蓓洁 新理念英译汉教程 中国科学技术出版社2007.9
15. 宋天锡编著. 翻译新概念 英汉互译实用教程[M].北京市：国防工业出版社.2011
16. 顾振海等主编.21世纪医学共核英语翻译教程[M].南京市：南京大学出版社.2001.
17. 傅勇林，唐跃勤主编. 科技翻译[M].北京市：外语教学与研究出版社.2012.
18. 李长栓著. 非文学翻译[M].北京市：外语教学与研究出版社.2009.
本课程的性质：
本课程立足于普通科技英语，非专业英语，因为专业英语存在大量专业术语，专业知识，以及特殊的思维逻辑。了解科技英语语言，了解其词汇概念，语法体系和文体特征，可以帮助我们进行专业英语的阅读、翻译和写作。
本课程服务于非专业英语翻译学生，教学内容更多涉及以“药”为依托的经济贸易、社会问题、科学技术发展、科普知识介绍、医药卫生、时事政治等。
本课程的重点：
本课程的重点不是微观技巧的阐述，而是培养真正的翻译理念和用英语获取专业知识的能力。训练的目的不在于学生学会多少专业术语的翻译，不在于单纯提高学生的语言能力，而是通过一定数量的翻译练习掌握翻译的原则和技巧。
翻译是一个不断完善的过程，单靠教师的讲座和译文赏析，学不会翻译。
翻译也没有标准答案，学生需通过调查研究，自己找到问题的解决方法。
本课程学习步骤：
理论讲解与翻译实践相结合，根据课堂理论讲解完成翻译练习。对于课后练习的修改，教师首先指出问题，课堂进行讲解，学生再通过对照其他学生的译文，拓宽思路，再次对自己的译文进行修改，达到提高翻译能力和水平。
本课程的理论阐述内容：
1. 英汉语言对比与翻译
2. 科技英语句法特征与翻译
3. 科技英语词汇特征与翻译
授课方式（method of teaching）: lecture and discussion
课时（semester hour）: 16
考评（assessment ）: 40% formative assessment + 60%final exam
Weeks and Themes
1. on hypotaxis and parataxis
2. on difference in sentence order
3. on statics and dynamics on nominal style and verbal style
4. on amplification
5. on omission
6. on inanimate subject and passive voice
7. on relative clause and long sentences
8. on contrast between complete translation and varied translation
General Introduction to Translation of EST
科技英语翻译介绍
翻译的定义：
翻译是把用一种语言表达的信息准确通畅地转换为另一种语言的活动或行为。
翻译是桥梁，交际的质量甚或成功与否，在很大程度上取决于翻译这座桥梁。
翻译理论：
（1） 玄奘：“既须求真，又须喻俗。”
（2） 严复：“译事三难：信、达、雅。”
（3） 20世纪30年代：“信、顺”
（4） 新中国：“忠实、通顺”，前者主要对原文作者负责，后者主要对译文读者负责。
（5） 傅雷：“神似”
（6） 钱钟书：“化境”
翻译的标准：
1）准确规范 2）通顺易懂 3）简洁明晰
翻译的手段：
工作方式：
口译 interpretation
笔译 translation
机器翻译 machine translation
处理方式：
全译、摘译、编译、缩译、改译等
翻译的对象
文学、科技、政论、新闻、经贸、法律、应用文等
翻译的方法
直译 literal translation
意译 free translation
影响翻译的几对矛盾
1) 忠实原文与照顾译文读者之间的矛盾
2) 原文与译文语言系统之间的矛盾
语音差异：四声与轻重音；音素象征意义。
词汇差异：词义的涵盖范围；独有的事物。
句法差异：汉语“意合”，英语“形合”
3）原文文化与译文文化之间的矛盾
语用习惯、文化联想、文化特色等
Exercise ：
1. Translate the following phrases:
红茶
红豆
红糖
红利
红颜
红娘
红眼病（眼红别人）
红白喜事
红颜祸水
满面红光
她的眼圈红了.
2. Research the difference in the implied meanings of idioms, colors, metaphors of plants or animals.
English vs. Chinese: Ten Pairs of Features
①Synthetic vs．Analytic
English is a synthetic language marked with inflexions(曲折变化形式) ，while
Chinese is an analytic language without any inflection，which is usuallv implied in the context or explicitly shown in such words as“着、了、过”etc ．For example：
During the wartime ，years like these would have meant certain death for many
people. Many would have become beggars and others would have been compelled to sell their children．
．
②Compact vs．Diffusive
English sentences are compact tightly combined with connectives or prepositions，
while Chinese is diffused，that is，loose in structure．
Now the integrated circuit has reduced by many times the size of the computer of
which it forms a part，thus creating a new generation of portable minicomputer．
现在集成电路成了计算机的组成部分，使计算机的体积大大缩小，从而产生了
新一代的便携式微型计算机。
A notion has taken hold in the US to the effect that the only people who should be
encouraged to bring children into the world are those who can afford them．
在美国有一个根深蒂固的观点，说是只有对那些抚养得起子女的人，才应鼓励
其生育。
③Hypotactic vs．Paratactic
In English clauses or phrases are coordinated with or subordinated to one another
syntactically while in Chinese they are placed one after another without coordinating connectives ．
The many colors of a rainbow range from red on the outside to violet on the inside．
彩虹有多种颜色，外圈红，内圈紫。
He had a disconcerting habit of expressing contradictory ideas in rapid succession．
他有一种令人难堪的习惯：一会儿一个看法，自相矛盾，变化无常。
④Complex vs. Simplex
English sentences are long and complex ，while Chinese sentences are short and
simple ．For example：
Many man-made substances are replacing certain natural materials because either
the quality of the natural product can not meet our ever-increasing requirement，or ，
more often，because the physical properties of the synthetic substance．which is the common name for man．made materials，have been chosen．and even emphasized，
so that it would be Of the greatest use in the fields in which it is to be applied．
人造材料通称为合成材料。许多人造材料正在代替某些天然材料，这或者是由
于天然物产的数量不能满足日益增长的需要，或者是由于人们选择了合成材料的
一些物理性质并加以突出而造成的。因此，合成材料在其应用领域将具有极大的
用途。
⑤Impersonal vs．Personal
There are more impersonal structures in English than in Chinese，as shown in the
following examples：
What has happened to you? 你出了什么事儿啦?
An idea suddenly struck me． 我突然想到一个主意。
Not a sound reached our ears． 我们没有听到任何声音。
A great elation overcame them． 他们欣喜若狂。
The truth finally dawned on her． 她最终明白了真相。
⑥ Passive vs．Active
As we have mentioned in the previous units，the passive voice is extensively used
in English，while Chinese sentences are usually active．
A few years ago it was thought unusual that programs could ever be called up by
viewers to be displayed on their TV screens at home．
几年前人们还以为，观众居然能够打电话要求在自己家里的电视屏幕上播出节
目是一种稀罕的事情。
⑦ Static vs．Dynamic
English is static，with agent nouns being frequently used to replace verbs，while
Chinese is dynamic，with more verbs being used in a single sentence．
He is a good eater and a good sleeper．
他能吃又能睡。
You must be a very bad learner；or else you must be going to a very bad teacher．
你一定很不善于学习，要不然就是教你的人很不会教。
⑧ Abstract vs．Concrete
In expressing the same idea English seems more abstract while Chinese ，more
concrete ．
The absence of intelligence is an indication of satisfactory developments．
没有消息即表明有令人满意的进展。
A high degree of carelessness，pre-operative and post-operative，on the part of some
of the hospital staff，took place．
医院某些医护人员在手术前后都非常粗心。
⑨ Indirect VS．Direct
Some English sentences seem to be indirect in affirmation while Chinese Sentences
are straightforward．
I couldn’t feel better． 我觉得身体好极了。
I couldn’t agree with you more． 我太赞成你的看法了。
He can’t see you quick enough． 他很想尽快和你见面。
If you have a car，you are independent of trains and buses．
如果你有小汽车，就不用去坐火车或挤公共汽车。
⑩ Substitutive VS．Repetitive
Generally speaking，there are not use so many repetitions in English as in Chinese．
．
He hated failure；he had conquered it all his life，risen above it，and despised it in
Exercise ：
Translate the following passage into Chinese:
The world seems increasingly divided into those who favor genetically modified (GM) foods and those who fear them. Advocates assert that growing genetically altered crops can be kinder to the environment and that eating foods from those plants is perfectly safe. And, they say, genetic engineering －which can induce plants to grow in poor soils or to produce more nutritious foods－will soon become an essential tool for helping to feed the world's burgeoning population. Skeptics contend that GM crops could pose unique risks to the environment and to health －risks too troubling to accept placidly. Taking that view, many European countries are restricting the planting and importation of GM agricultural products.
Hypotaxis vs Parataxis
形合vs 意合
形合，指语言的词语与分句之间用自身的形式手段，表达语法意义和逻辑关系
意合，指语言的词语与分句之间不用语言形式手段连接，句子的语法意义和逻辑关系通过
词语或分句的含义来表达
转换：在进行汉英翻译时需在英语译句中补充各种形式手段，如形形色色的虚词、关联词、
主语、人称代词、物主代词、介词、冠词、系词等，将语法意义和逻辑关系表达出来。在进行英汉则常常将英语的长句、紧句化为汉语的短句、松句。
例句：The isolation of the rural world, because of distance and the lack of transport facilities, is 译文：由于距离远，又缺乏交通工具，使农村社会与外界隔绝，而这种隔绝，又由于通讯
工具不足而变得更加严重。
评析：汉语五个小短句，英语一个长句由五个介词/介词短语连接九个名词组成。
例句：我公司厂房标准，设备齐全，技术力量雄厚，质量精良。
译文：Our company has standard production premises complete with full lines of equipment. top quality.
评析：汉语四个并列成分，一个层次，英语分两句表达，每个英文句子有主次层次之分。
1. 氯是一种腐蚀性气体，对许多金属有侵蚀作用，如吸入，可刺激鼻、喉粘膜。
2. 单个血细胞通过血浆在体内运行，时间多达120天，最后被冲到循环系统的垃圾场—— 脾脏。
3. 烤烟、苹果、羊毛和甘薯是延安的四大农产品，年产量3.12亿元，占农业总产值的52.5%.
4. 可以预言，钛材在飞机或各种飞行器上的应用将会与日俱增，并且在其他工业中的应用也会扩大。
5. If rise of blood pressure occurs with some other disease, it is called secondary hypertension.
6. Change of information, if any, concerning the contents of this section will be found in the appendix at the end of this book.
7. 一种微生物能够破坏另一种微生物，这种现象最早是巴斯德发现的，他指出这可以用到
医疗上去。
思考题：
1. 英语形合的形式手段有哪些？
2. 汉语意合的特点是什么？
Difference in the focus of a sentence
英汉句子重心的差异
汉语：由先到后，由因到果，由假设到推论，先叙事后总结，符合汉语“末尾焦点”的语言习
惯和“从众归一”的思维方式。
英语：先表示个人的感受、态度或是首先就事情本身做出评论，然后再叙述事情的来龙去脉。
例1: 他们培育出的细胞看上去像胚胎干细胞，这的确令人惊讶。
例2 : 1968年12月阿波罗8号宇宙飞船上那些想家的宇航员们在太空拍下了整个地球的彩
照，此后在1970年4月很快就出现了第一个地球日，这绝非是历史的偶然。
例3 药物在体内和分子靶位相互作用，因此，为了得到预期的药效，选择正确的靶位非常重要。
例4. 由于贵国政府的提议，才得以这样快地重新实现访问，这使我感到特别高兴。
例5：由于现代世界的发展和近年来在单门学科狭窄前沿上的研究进展，出现一些极其复杂的难题，单凭一两个人的力量是无法对它们进行透彻研究的。
例6：这种小型热带鱼由于具有自行修复受损和患病的眼部细胞的独特能力，长期以来一直为科学家所关注。
例7：不努力就不会成功。
例8：想到要出国深造，他激动不已。
例9：如蒙早日寄来样品或产品册，将不胜感激。
例10：如能尽早回复，我将非常感谢。
讨论：
1. In practice, the selected interval thickness is usually a compromise between the need for a thin interval to maximize the resolution (分辨率) and a thick interval to minimize the error.
2. 在自然界找不到处于游离状态的铝，因为这种金属总是和其他元素结合在一起，最普遍的是跟氧结合（铝和氧都有很强的亲和力）。所以，铝直到十九世纪才被人类发现。（亲和力 affinity ）
3. It was to test the effects of mercury on the heart that the two new studies compared the mercury levels in clippings from toenails, where heavy metals tend to be deposited.
Word Order
英汉语序差异
various sizes) in a sentence. For most languages, basic word order can be defined in terms of the finite verb (V) and its arguments, the subject (S) and object (O). The overwhelming majority of the world's languages are either SVO or SOV , with a much smaller but still significant portion using VSO word order.
英语与汉语在民族思维习惯及语言形态上是有同有异，在基本语序上是大同小异。“同”的是主语、谓语和宾语的位置，“异”的是定语和状语的位置。
1．定语位置的比较
例：1. 人体T 细胞白血病病毒→
2. 国际经济新秩序 →
3. 第五届全国化学生物学学术会议→
4. National Academy of Sciences →
5. Overview of GMP, Quality System and Compliance in the US→ 6. common side effects of the chemotherapeutic drugs used to treat cancer →
2. 状语位置的比较
例：7. 这个通信卫星可以在任何时间向任何地点有效地传递语音信号和数据信号。
8.
9. 中国南京江宁区龙眠大道639号
11. The temperature is between 20--25℃
12. 无论处于固态、液态或气态，水的化学成份都保持不变。
For discussion:
1. SELDI-TOF-MS is a rapid and sensitive proteomic technique that has been applied to identify biomarkers in various diseases.
2. 由于甜椒中的亲脂性成分，用极性洗脱液洗脱的甜椒样品表现出更高的生物活性。
3. 该项准则随后成为了全球公认的评价口服固体剂型均匀度的非药典测量方法。
Static vs Dynamic
动态、静态
1. 动态与静态
客观现实中的一个事件，人们可以用动态来表述，也可以用静态来表述，表述的角度不同便构成了动态句型和静态句型。语法学家Quirk 指出，总的来讲，名词自然地被定义为“静态”，因为它们所指的实体是稳定的；相反，动词自然地被定义为“动态”：动词适合表示动作、活动，暂时的或变化的情况。
英语倾向于多用名词，名词的使用频率大大高于动词，所以英语句子以静态叙述占优。汉语动词用得多，所以汉语句子以动态叙述占优。
例1. There was a predominance of weeds in the deserted garden.
例2. In the next 15 to 20 years, China is well-positioned to join the ranks of the world‟s high
income countries. That‟s a transition that only a handful of countries have made — and, sadly, many have failed.
例3. …government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth. 例4. I tried vainly to put the pieces together.
例5. 地球绕轴自转，引起昼夜变化。
例6. 采用这种新装置可以大大降低废品率。
例7. 为使物体克服惯性而运动，就需要一个力。
例8. 许多学贯中西的大师的经历说明，学不好母语的人，也不可能真正学好外语。
2. 科技英语中的名词化形式(nominalization)
英语的静态特征具有多方面的表现：从词法上讲，英语常用抽象名词、动词的同源名词、同源形容词、介词、副词等来表达动态含义。名词化使用可使表达简洁，避免犯时态、语态、性数一致等语法错误。对比以下各组句子：
1. If you insert a slash, you can rectify this fault.
Rectification of this fault is achieved by insertion of a slash.
2. Hypersonic speeds are quite commonly attained now.
The attainment of hypersonic speeds is now quite common.
3. If the thickness of the lagging is increased, it will reduce the heat losses.
An increase in the thickness of the lagging will reduce the heat losses.
4. While it is being compacted, considerable lateral pressure is exerted by the concrete. Considerable lateral pressure is exerted by the concrete during compaction.
Exercise:
1. The incubation period is the time that elapsed between the entrance of the microorganism and the manifestation of the disease.
2. Laser is one of the most sensational developments in recent years, because of its applicability to many fields of science and its adaptability to practical uses.
3. There can be few more depressing stories in the entire history of man‟s exploration of nature than the destruction of the unfortunate great whales.
Amplification
增词
英汉词语语言由于表达方式不尽相同，翻译时既可能要将词类加以转换，又可能要在词量上加以增减。增词法就是在翻译时按意义上（或修辞法）和句法上的需要增加一些词来更忠实通顺地表达原文的思想内容。当然不是无中生有地随意增词，而是增加原文中虽无其词但有其意的一些词从而使得译文在语法、语言形式上符合译文习惯并在文化背景、语言联想方面与原文一致起来，使得译文与原文在内容和形式等方面对等起来。
1. After the football match, he‟s got an important meeting.
2. He said he‟d come to the discussion.
3. Her job was sweeping, scratching, cleaning.
4. I could knit when I was seven.
5. This typewriter is indeed cheap and fine.
6. Because of its reliability and simplicity evaporation is often applied on a large scale,, normally using steam as the heat source.
7. Oxidation will make iron and steel rusty.
8. During an EL Nino the pressures over Australia, Indonesia and the Philippines are higher than normal, which results in dry conditions or even droughts.
9. Were there no gravity, there would be no air around the earth..
10. The sun warms the earth, which makes it possible for plants to grow.
11. The frequency, wave length, and speed of sound are closely related.
12. Human beings have not yet been able to make an element by combining protons, neutrons and electrons.
13. Air is a mixture of gases.
14. Things in the universe are changing all the time.
15. Plastic bowls marked microwavable are probably safer than those that aren‟t.
16. Matter can be changes into energy and energy into matter.
17. The earth‟s population is doubling; the environment is being damaged.
18. The chief effects of electric currents are the magnetic, heating and chemical effects.
Omission
减词
由于英语和汉语在句法结构上的差异，遣词造句上的不同，英语句子中需要的词，汉语句子中不一定需要，如果译出来就会累赘。比如，英语中冠词、介词、连词、代词使用很广，汉语中没有冠词，介词、连词、代词的使用也不是很多，所以英语中冠词、介词、连词、代词译成汉语时常常省略。
From English into Chinese
1. With an equation we can work with an unknown quantity.
2. A teacher should have patience in his work.
3. This machine is in good condition.
4. There are many kinds of bacteria which vary in shape and in size.
5. Pure water freezes at 0℃ and boils at 100℃ under standard pressure.
6. When the pressure gets low, the boiling point becomes low.
From Chinese into English
1. 由于失业率增高，美元币值下降，股票市场处于困境之中，经济问题将是总统所面临的最严峻的考验。
2. 你参加过花样滑冰项目的比赛吗？
3. 阳光会破坏牛奶一类食品的维生素成分。
4 我们已经从其他国家有计划有选择地进口了一些成套设备。
5 应探索各种途径和手段促进儿童语言的发展。
6. 回顾过去病史, 未发现感染反复发作。
7. 今年我们在引进工作方面又取得了重大成绩。
8. 我们积极支持生态农业。
9. 抗氧化剂是某种存在于食品中的化学物质。
10. 这台较复杂的电脑又能设计出一台更为复杂的电脑，而且还可以一代代更加复杂精密地开发、研制下去。
Negation
句意反译
In C-E translation a positive sentence may be translated into a negative sentence, or vice versa. This is a kind of perspective shift. Negation may make the version more fluent and expressive. 民族不同，思维方法以及用来反映思维的方式往往也不同。例如，英语民族从正面表达的内容，汉语民族可以、有时甚至必须从反面表达。如果译文的肯定否定与原文相反，或者改从相反的视点来表达。译文中一切与原文表达方式不一致、相矛盾或相反的情形，都称为“反译”。
含有否定意义的词汇：
1）否定词：not 、no 以及un-、dis-、-less 等否定词缀
●
●
2）否定意义的动词
lack, fail ，stop, prevent, ignore, refuse，avoid, miss, cease
●
●
●
3）否定意义的介词
● It is
repair ．
●
● ．
● Radio telescopes have been able to probe space
the range of ordinary optical telescopes ．
●
● silver ．
● The molecular formula, C6H14, does not show anything 分子式
From positive into negative
肯定译为否定
1. There are many other energy sources in store.
2. In the high altitude snow and ice remain all year.
3. As rubber prevents electricity from passing through it, it is used as insulating material.
4. We have found your terms and conditions agreeable.
5. 这份说明书不够详尽。
6. 我们不应当再把海洋当成人类生活污水和工业污水的垃圾场了。
7. 精密仪器必须保持无尘。
8. 铁箱能使地球磁场影响不了指南针。
9. 我们无权签此合同。
10. 他们公司在产品的包装和宣传上明显比不上竞争对手。
From negative into positive
否定译为肯定
1. The study of genetics will never he so all encompassing as to gobble up every subject from
medicine to sociology.
2. The advantages of nano-structured materials do no end here.
3. Until recently geneticists were not interested in particular genes.
4. Don ‟t lose time in posting this letter.
5. No deposit will be refunded unless ticket produced.
6. It was suggested that such devices should be designed and produced without delay.
7. Ice is not as dense as water and it therefore floats.
8. These bacteria will not die until the temperature reaches 100℃.
9. Its importance can‟t be stressed too strongly.
10. We don‟t consider melting to be chemical changes.
11. The doctors do not expect that the patient with breast cancer will recover
12. One could not be too careful in a new neighborhood.
Impersonal vs Personal
物称与人称
西方哲学主张“人物分立”，即主客体分明，强调客观、重视理性。汉民族的传统思维注重主体意识，强调“天人合一”的哲学思想。这种思维差异在语言上体现为英语重物称，汉语重人称。英文常以物或抽象概念做主语，强调“物称主语”的重要性，倾向于以客观事实的形式表达所思所想。汉语经常用表“人”的词、词组、短语做主语，倾向以“人”为中心描绘客观事实。
1. Pork has priced itself out of his dish.
2. Space does not allow us to further analyze this problem here.
3. By now optimism had given way to doubt.
4. Aminophylline（氨茶碱）does not share the usual objection to vasodilators.
5. The exigency of the case admitted of no alternative.
6. It is known to us that bronchitis is a common disease.
7. “an increased level of anxiety disproportionate to the actu al risk,” says Jerrold Bushberg, who directs programs in health physics at the University of California at Davis. “
8. The resistance can be determined provided that the voltage and current are known．
9. Some things have been said here tonight that ought not to have been spoken.
10. 突然间我想到了一个主意。Suddenly I got an idea. → 物称主语句
11. 不同的人对食物持不同的态度。Different people have different attitudes towards food.
12. 人们一直认为植物病毒不会感染动物，反之亦然。
For discussion:
1. Friday started with a morning visit to the modern campus of the 22，000-student University of Michigan in nearby Ann Arbor ，where the Chinese table tennis team joined students in the cafeteria inn for lunch and later played an exhibition match.
2. There has been a striking continuous, but unexplained decline in the reported death rate of gastric carcinoma in the United States from 34 per 1,000,000 population in 1930 to 8 per 1,000,000 currently.
3. The journey from embryonated egg to the ligase chain reaction has embraced an enormous amount of work involving tissue cell culture, enzyme immunoassay, fluorescence, and molecular techniques.
Passive Voice
被动语态
Passive voice in English:
Why use passive voice?
The rationale for using the passive voice in scientific writing is that it achieves "an objective tone" —for example, by avoiding the first person.
Passive voice in Chinese：?
1. Qinghao has been used to treat malaria in China for over 2000 years.
2. These problems must be solved before the tests start.
3. Pain may be treated with drugs, physical measures or surgery.
4. The patient is questioned by a doctor about his present complaint and the date of the onset of the disease.
5. Several elements and compounds may be extracted directly form seawater.
6. While a current is flowing through a wire, the latter is being heated.
7. Weak magnetic fields are known to come from the human body.
8. Air resistance must be given careful consideration when the missile is to be designed.
9. It is claimed that soap powders pollute the water we drink.
10. 心脏往往被看作是人体最重要的器官。
11. 雄性Wistar 大鼠20只随机分为对照组和糖尿病组。
12. 本文以前没有发表过，目前也没有考虑投寄其他杂志发表。
For discussion:
1. Replication is normally carried out by the A, B, or C family polymerases with high fidelity
and high processivity.
2. The conflict between the urgent need for new antimicrobial agents against resistant bacteria in
clinic and less development of new antibiotics should be resolved by the cooperations among enterprises, government and institutions.
3. Although an association between migraine and chest pain has been described, an association
between migraine and coronary events has not been firmly established.
Translation of Chinese sentences without subject
汉语无主语句的英译
汉语重意合, 句式结构往往不依赖结构词, 而依靠句子本身的内在联系。汉语篇章中, 某些句子的主语常常省略，呈现了汉语句式中无主语句这一特点。而英语句子重形合, 其意义的表达往往依赖于句子之间的连接词, 句子结构主要采用主谓机制。英语的主语具有不可或缺性, 是谓语讨论或描写、叙述的对象。例：
他到家时已是凌晨两点了。
看菜吃饭，量体裁衣。
汉语无主语句可通过以下原则进行英译: (1)增添主语; (2)使用被动语态; (3)使用祈使句; (4)使用形式主语"it"; (5)使用"There be"句型。
例1：弄不好, 就会前功尽弃。
例2：要了解中国，可以有很多视角。
例3：学习先进, 才有可能赶超先进.
例4：与其说海洋把陆地分开，不如说海洋把陆地连在一起。
例5：从他家到公园很近。
例6：我的家乡冬天很少下雪。
例7：可以采用各种方法使温度下降。
例8：首先要保证产品的质量。
例9：操纵这些机器时必须小心。
例10：如果发现有链球菌，就需要再进行一个疗程的青霉素治疗。
例11：使用电子显微镜，能获得大得多的放大倍数。
例12：该项实验中肯定困难很多。
例13：没有顺利，无所谓困难；没有困难，也无所谓顺利。
例14：对母语是英语的人来说，根本不可能4个星期就学会汉语。
例15：已经决定几个月后进行生产。
例16：建议采用中国生产的设备。
例17：随信附上我们新开发产品的样品。
Long Sentence in EST
英语长句翻译
英语一方面可以利用介词短语、不定式短语、分词短语以及各种并列结构，组成很长的简单句，一方面可以使用相应的连接词或关系词，将适当的分句或小句组合成更长的长句结构，而且往往从句之中套着分句、分句之中又包含从句，形成环扣相连的长句结构。
汉语更注重意合，形式连接手段远不如英语那样种类繁多，语法关系主要通过语序体现，句子内容则基本上依据时间顺序和逻辑关系加以安排。在表达比较复杂的概念时，汉语常用一组分立的中短句、并列的散句或流水句。因此，总的说来，汉语句子一般要比英语句子简短，在翻译英语长句时，应按照汉语的造句常规，重新加以组合，以符合汉语表达的习惯传递原文意义。
顺译法、逆译法、分译法、插入法
例1： It was believed that perhaps during its existence inside the body of the mother, the growing
embryo becomes fixed on the sound of the heart beat; if this is so, then the discovery of this familiar sound after birth might have a calming effect on the infant, especially as it has just been thrust into a strange and frightening new world outside.
例2： Studies show that most doctors sincerely believe that the seriously ill patients do not want
to know the truth about their condition, and that informing them risking destroying their hope, so that they may recover more slowly, or deteriorate faster, perhaps even commit suicide.
例3： He had cleaned up those confusions which arose from different medicines that had been
given a same name and different names that had been given to the same substance.
例4：It was to test the effects of mercury on the heart that the two new studies compared the
mercury levels in clippings from toenails, where heavy metals tend to be deposited.
例5：What should doctors say, for example, to a 46-year-old man coming in a routine physical
checkup just before going on vacation with his family who, though he feels in perfect health, is found to have a form of cancer that will cause him to die within six months?
例6：There is no more difference, but there is the same kind of difference, between the mental
operations of a man of science and those of an ordinary person ，as there is between the operations and methods of a baker or of a butcher weighing out his goods in common scales ， and the operations of a chemist in performing a difficult and complex analysis by means of his balance and finely graded weights.
例7：This hope of “early discovery” of lung cancer followed by surgical cure, which currently
seems to be the most effective form of therapy, is often thwarted by diverse biology behaviors in the rate and direction of growth of cancer.
例8：Over the periods the snakes‟ saliva, a mild, digestive juice like our own, was converted into a
poison that defies analysis even today.
例9：But scientists hope stem cells can be used to grow a range of tissues, from brain tissue to
treat diseases such as Parkinson‟s, in which brain cells are destroyed, to juvenile diabetes, in which key cells in the pancreas die off.
Relative Clauses
定语从句
英汉两种语言的最基本的语序是SVO （subject + verb + object），但我们在翻译复杂句时，两种语言的语序所存在的差异则给翻译带来不少困难。定语在英汉两种语言中所处的位置就完全相反。中文修饰名词的成分常在名词前（左）边，称为Left Branching Direction (LBD)，英文的修饰性从句则恰在后（右）边，称为 Right Branching Direction (RBD)。这种差别使得译者在翻译时必须善于变通。定语从句翻译时的变通主要在于调整从句的类别，必须根据上下文、语境灵活处理。
合译法（前置法）：
3. Essential hypertension is the name given to the type of hypertension for which no cause can be found.
4. The chemicals that make metabolism possible come from the air we breathe, the water we drink, and the food we eat.
分译法：
5. The body consists of a large number of organs, each of which has its own particular function to perform.
6. Glycogen is stored in the liver, which is released as needed in the form of glucose.
7. Operations can be performed with acupuncture analgesia, which is a great contribution to the development of medical science.
8. The blood flows from the small arteries into the capillaries in which it gives up oxygen to the body cells and removes wastes from the tissues.
状语作用：
9. We know that a cat, whose eyes can take in many more rays of light than our eyes, can see clearly in the night.
10. The disease, which may occur at any age, is most frequent in early adult life.
11. Cancer should be suspected in persons who have any of these symptoms and signs for unaccountable causes and for an unreasonable period of time.
12. Third world countries export their mineral deposit and tropical agriculture products, which bring them desired foreign exchange.
融合法：
13. The purpose for which electricity is used is numerous.
14. Fortunately, there are some chemical fuels that are clean and smokeless.